SD 211 
.U6 
1921 
Copy 1 



DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE 

ROY S. MACELWEE, Director 



SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 195 



SWEDISH FORESTS, LUMBER INDUSTRY, 
AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE 



BY 



AXEL H. OXHOLM 

Trade Commlsaiuner 




PRICE, 25 CENTS 

Sold by the Superintendent ol Documents, Gorernsieat Prlntine Office 
Washineton, B.C. 



i.lP%^ 



-<^A 



WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 




gassSl]^/ / 
Book X L ia 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Ul.5, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE 

BUREAU OF FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC COMMERCE 

ROY S. MACELWEE, Director 



SPECIAL AGENTS SERIES— No. 195 



SWEDISH FORESTS, LUMBER INDUSTRY, 
AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE 

BY 

AXEL H. OXHOLM 

I 

Trade Commissioner 




PRICE, 25 CENTS 

Sold by the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing OfiBcc 
Washington. D . C. 

WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1921 






LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

MAR9-1921 

DOCUMEisrS UiV.olON 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Letter of submittal 9 

Introduction 11 

General description of the country 16 

Topographical conditions 17 

Climatic conditions 18 

Interior waterways and railroads 18 

Industiies 20 

Merchant marine and commerce 21 

Population and principal cities 23 

Money, weights, and measures 23 

Part I. — Forest resoiu-ces and logging and floating operations 24 

Forest resources 24 

Forest regions 25 

Species 28 

Stands of timber 35 

Ownership 38 

Forest institutions and'schools 51 

Forest fires 52 

Taxes 53 

Value of timlierlands 53 

Laws affecting forest management and cutting 54 

Forest commissions 58 

Forestry associations 59 

Annual increment and annual consumption 60 

Logging 62 

Methods of obtaining raw material for sawmills 62 

Forest management 65 

Cutting systems 66 

Felling the trees 67 

Driving • 73 

Labor and wages 74 

Cost of logging 76 

Average log dimensions in different districts 77 

Prices of saw logs 78 

Floating. 81 

Floating-river systems 82 

Organization of floating 85 

Improvement of floating rivers 87 

Process of floating 87 

Sorting of logs 88 

Ocean rafting of logs 89 

Labor and wages 89 

Quantities of logs floated 89 

Cost of floating 90 

Effect of floating on quality 95 

Future developments 95 

Part II. — Lumber manufacture 96 

Sawmill industry 96 

Development of the industry 96 

Location of mills 98 

Ownership of mills 100 

Sawmill organization 100 

Export mills 103 

Mills for cutting ties 104 

Government-operated mills 105 

Power 106 

Log ponds 106 

3 



4 CONTENTS. 

Part II. — Lumber manufacture — Continued. 

Sawmill industry — Continued. Page. 

Mill construction and machinery 107 

Sawing 114 

Edging, sorting, and transportation 121 

Dimensions 122 

Special products 124 

Utilization of sawmill waste 125 

Seasoning 126 

Grading 130 

Trimming 138 

Loading 140 

Inspection in port of shipment 141 

Labor and wages 141 

Cost of production 146 

Planing-mill industry 150 

Crew of planing mill 151 

Equipment of planing mill 151 

Resawing and planing methods 156 

Dimensions of planed lumber 159 

Grading and loading 160 

Labor and wages 1 161 

Cost of production 162 

Box factories 162 

Equipment 163 

Sawing of raw material 165 

Dimensions of shooks 166 

Shipments 168 

Cost of production and labor 168 

Ready-cut houses — Sash and door factories 1 168 

Part III. — ^The lumber export trade 170 

Development of the export trade r 170 

Sawn and planed lumber 172 

Round, hewn, and sawn timber 178 

Markets for Swedish lumber exports. 183 

Shipping conditions 184 

Railway freight rates 185 

Steamship lines and tonnage question — , 186 

Rafting of sawn liunber 187 

Ocean freight rates 189 

Marine insurance 190 

Shipping regions 191 

Upper-gulf region 192 

Hernosand region 193 

Lower-gulf region 194 

Stockholm-Malmo region 196 

West-coast region 197 

Detailed consideration of principal markets 197 

United Kingdom 197 

France 198 

Germany 199 

Denmark , 200 

Netherlands 201 

Belgium 202 

Spam and Canary Islands 202 

Nor^vay 203 

Other iEuropean markets 203 

Asia 205 

North Africa ; 205 

British South Africa 205 

Other markets of Africa '- 206 

Australia 206 

The Americas 207 

Competing lumber-exporting countries 207 

Russia 207 

Finland '- 209 

• Norway 209 



CONTENTS. 5 

Part III. — The lumber export trade — Continued. 

Competing lumber-exporting countries — Continued. Page. 

Austria and Rumania 209 

Canada 210 

United States 210 

Handling export sales 211 

Managing the sales department of the mill 211 

Export selling methods 214 

Standard contracts 222 

Branding 228 

Trade journals — Advertising 231 

Swedish Lumber Exporters ' Association 232 

.\rbitration service 233 

Attempt to establish uniform grading rules 234 

Chartering bureau 234 

Information service 235 

Cooperation with Government and with other associations 236 

Advantage of similar organization for United States ,. 236 

Terms of payment and financing of lumber export trade 236 

Standards of measure 239 

Rates of exchange .' 240 

Prices 240 

Basis of price quotations 241 

Prices at Hernosand from 1910 to 1919 244 

Official prices for specified dates 247 

Review of prices from 1870 to 1901 248 

Prices at central Norrland ports 249 

Prices in lower-gulf district 251 

Prices in local markets 254 

Price-conversion table 255 

Comparison of Swedish and American softwood lumber 255 

Manufacture 256 

Quality 256 

Gipading 257 

Future of Swedish forests, lumber industry, and lumber export trade 258 

Appendixes 260 

Appendix A. — Swedish imports of woods 260 

Appendix B. — Swedish exports of woods 264 

Appendix C. — Catalogues 282 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Fig. 1. Jonaker County forest, the densest mixed stand of pine and spruce in 

Europe facing . . 1 

2. Exceptionally fine stand of pine in State forest facing. . 16 

3. Typical pine forest in northern Norrland facing. . 17 

4. Section of Swedish pine facing.. 17 

5. Exports from Sweden in 1913, by groups of articles 22 

6. Scandinavian forest regions 26 

7. Eighty-five-year-old stand of pine and spruce, 7,000 cubic feet per acre, 

Dalecarlia district facing. . 28 

8. Cross section of Swedish spruce facing . . 29 

9. Productive forest areas by Provinces 36 

10. Birch forest, central Sweden facing. . 40 

11. High stumps left more than 50 year ago facing. . 41 

12. Public forest districts 42 

13. Plan of Swedish State College of Forestry, Stockholm 50 

14. Sixteen-year old pine stand on drained land in centralNorrland. facing.. £2 

15. Draining of forest land, southern Norrland facing . . 52 

16. Method of cutting facing. . 53 

17. Forest areas covered by special laws 55 

18. Annual increment arid annual cut in the Swedish forests and possible 

annual increment 60 

19. Eighty-five-year-old pine forest in Dalecarlia after second improve- 

ment thinning facing . . 64 

20. Exceptionally fine stand of oak, southern Sweden facing. . 65 

21. Clean-cutting system, leaving mother trees facing. . 65 



6 CONTENTS. 

Page. 

Fig. 22. Chopping branches and refuse into firewood facing . . 72 

23. Pulling roots facing. . 72 

24. Burning charcoal facing . . 73 

25. Rigid inspection of height of stumps facing . , 73 

26. Driving logs facing. . 80 

27. Logging camp facing. . 80 

28. Crosscutting, barking, and cutting off rotten section of log facing. . 81 

29. Logs piled on river bank _ facing . . 81 

30. Northern Sweden, showing rivers suitable for floating. .1 83 

31. Plan of sorting basin for saw logs at Sandslan 88 

32. Bundling small top logs for floating _. facing. . 88 

33. Pulp logs and logs for box factories piled on river bank facing . . 88 

34. Logging with reindeer, northern Sweden facing. . 89 

35. Relative cost of floating various log dimensions, shown by index 

numbers 91 

36. Logs from State forests showing large percentage of heart facing. . 96 

37. Log jam facing. . 96 

38. Flume facing. . 97 

39. Floating logs in Norrland facing. . 97 

40. Plan of administrative organization of sawmill 102 

41 . Sorting basin for logs facing . . 104 

42. Piling logs on land facing. . 104 

43 . Apparatus f oi bunching logs in sorting basin , Angermann River . facing . . 105 

44. Stendahl's saw blades and ordinary saw blades 110 

45. Plan of Swedish sawmill, box factory, and dry kiln 113 

46. Plan of Swedish sawmill, yard, and docks 114 

47. Plan of interior of Swedish sawmill 115 

48. Ericson system of piling logs on land facing. . 116 

49. Two systems of storing logs facing . . 117 

50. Sawing system passing logs once through the gang saw 117 

51. Sawing system passing logs twice through the gang saw — 118 

52. Sawing schedules for logs 10^ and 9 inches in top diameter 120 

53. Log pond facing. . 124 

54. Modern sawmill facing. . 125 

55. Diagram of piling method 127 

56. Maximum sizes of knots permitted in various grades 134 

57. Balanced circular trimmer facing. . 136 

58. Stave cutter facing . . 136 

59. Edger facing. . 137 

60. Log carriage facing. . 137 

61. Average amount of wane permissible in various grades of a 3 by 9 inch 

plank 138 

62. Gang-frame saw facing . . 144 

63. Gang-frame saw for crooked logs facing . . 145 

64. Plan of interior of Swedish planing mill 152 

65. Automatic apparatus for transporting logs from pond to mill. . facing. . 152 

66. System of conveyors transporting lumber from mill to sorting plant 

outside of mill facing. . 152 

67. Interior of modern Swedish sawmill facing . . 153 

68. A workman's house facing. . 160 

69. Iggesund pulp mill facing . . 160 

70. Accurate length measurements of Swedish pine facing . . 161 

71. Sawdust pile worth $10,000 facing. . 161 

72. Torroba system of shook manufacture 167 

73. Production of sawmills and planing mills by Pro\'inces 169 

74. Export of wood of all kinds from Sweden, 1913 171 

75. Exports from Sweden of rough and planed lumber of pine and spruce, 

from 1886 to 1918 172 

76. Horse eating cellulose food facing.. 172 

77. Briquet of compressed sawdust facing . . 172 

78 . Broom handles facing . . 173 

79. Piles of lumber covered with tarpaulins facing . . 173 

80. Exports from Sweden in 1913 of rough and planed lumber of pine and 

spruce, by countries of destination 174 

81. Exports from Sweden of rough and planed box shooks of pine and 

spruce 175 



CONTENTS. 7 

Page. 

Fig. 82. Export of rough and planed lumber, by skipping districts, 1913 177 

83. Piling with cranes facing- . 184 

84. Lumber piled solid and protected by triple roof facing. . 184 

85. Piling lumber so as to leave ends 3 or 4 inches long protruding from 

pile fating. . 185 

86. Method of piling with high base and perfectly clean bottoms, facing. . 185 

87. Another method of piling facing. . 196 

88. Piling of staves facing . . 196 

89. Pine staves ready for shipment facing. . 197 

90. Pile containing " Schaalbretter " used for packing cases for glassware 

in Belgium facing. . 197 

91. Swedish price list, in Greek, showing brands 204 

92. Dry kiln facing. . 208 

93. Grading and trimming lumber on dock facing . . 208 

94. Transporting lumber from portable mill in interior to railroad station, 

southern Sweden facing. . 209 

95. Barge for loading lumber facing. . 209 

96. Fast-feed planer facing. . 216 

97. Fixed-knife drawer facing. . 217 

98. Patent cutter facing- . 217 

99. Double resaw facing. . 224 

100. Resaw facing. . 224 

101. Automatic box machine . ., facing- . 225 

102. Double resaw for box material facing. . 225 

103. Spruce lumber, showing brand and dense growth : 227 

104. Sample of Swedish advertisement, showing brands 229 

105. Mine props in port of Goteborg facing. . 236 

106. Ties in port of Goteborg facing. . 236 

107. Square timber, Island of Gotland facing. . 237 

108. The first Refanut lumber raft, carrj-ing about 4,000,000 feet board 

measure facing. . 237 

109. Export prices of Swedish lumber from 1864 to 1913 facing. . 248 

110^ Type of ocean-going vessel used by interior mills facing. . 256 

111*; Lumber paid for but left by importer because of lack of shipping facil- 
ities 256 

112. Twenty- two steamers loading lumber, Hemosand district facing. . 257 

113. Trade-marking of lumber facing. . 264 

114. "German oak imported into Sweden. facing. . •265 

115. Swedish oak logs facing. . 265 

General map of Sweden facing. . 282 



LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 



Department of Commerce, 
Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, 

Washington, October 27, 1920. 

Sir: There is submitted herewith a report on the forests, lumber 
industry, and lumber export trade of Sweden, by Axel H. Oxholm, a 
trade commissioner sent to investigate the Scandinavian lumber 
field jointly by various lumber associations and the Bureau of Foreign 
and Domestic Commerce. Reports by Mr. Oxholm will also be 
issued on Finland and on Norway. 

Mr. Oxholm spent approximately eight months in Sweden, during 
which time he visited nearly every sawmill district in the country 
and, at the invitation of one of the principal exporters, even spent 
some time as a workman in a mill in order to gain a thorough knowledge 
of Swedish sawmill methods. Mr. Oxholm s work was greatly facili- 
tated by the cooperation of the Swedish Government, principally 
through the Swedish Forest Service, of the Swedish Forestry Asso- 
ciation and other institutions of forestry, and of the Swedish Lum- 
ber Exporters' Association. He also received valuable assistance from 
more than 1,500 lumber operators and business men in Sweden, 
all of whom showed great willingness to supply the data desired. 
Finally, acknowledgment is made to the United States Forest Serv- 
ice for preparing material for the report and also for reading the 
completed manuscript and making suggestions for its improvement. 

Sweden holds the foremost place among the nations in the intelli- 
gent exploitation of forests, in sawmill management, and in lumber 
export methods. The forests represent so large a proportion of the 
country's total assets that the best efforts of the jGovernment have 
been directed toward their conservation and effective utilization. 
With this backing from the Government, the main features of the 
Swedish lumber industiy have come to be forest conservation, close 
utiUzation of raw material, accuracy in manufacture, and a definite 
export policy, worked out through many years' experience and 
strictly maintained. The consideration of the results attained in a 
country that has thus concentrated on the development of the 
lumber industry can not fail to be of interest and benefit to Ameri- 
can forest owners, lumber manufacturers, and lumber exporters. 
Respectfully, 

Roy S. MacElwee, 

Director. 

To Hon. J. W. Alexander, 

Secretary of Cormnerce. 



SWEDISH FORESTS, LUMBER INDUSTRY, AND 
LUMBER EXPORT TRADE 



INTRODUCTION. 

A study of the forests, lumber industry, and lumber export trade 
of Sweden is probably the most interesting of its kind because Sweden 
occupies the leading position in the world in the lumber industry, 
not on account of the quantity produced, but on account of the sci- 
entific forest management and the efficient manufacturing and selling 
methods. 

The climate and soil in Sweden are both very favorable to the 
growth of forests, and a large part of the country would be unsuitable 
for anything else. The total area of productive forests is 55,000,000 
acres, of which public forests constitute 13,000,000 acres and private 
forests 42,000,000 acres. Stringent laws with regard to cutting are 
especially necessary in Sweden because of the supreme importance 
of the forests in the national life. A Swedish forest expert, C. A. 
Agardh, wrote in 1857: "It may be said that the position of Sweden 
as an independent nation and as a civilized country is contingent 
upon the existence or nonexistence of forests." These words were 
written before the lumber-export trade of the country was started 
on a big scale; they apply to present-day conditions perhaps even 
more strikmgly than to those of the middle of the nineteenth century. 
During normal years before the war the exports from Sweden of forest 
products (timber, lumber, lumber products, pulp, paper, etc.) aggre- 
gated $90,000,000, or 44 per cent of the total exports. The Swedish 
Government accordingly considers the perpetuation of the forests of 
such vital importance that no one is allowed to endanger the future 
of the timber stands by reckless exploitation for the sake of immediate 
profit; and this point of view is so generally accepted that no diffi- 
culty has been experienced m comiection with the Government's con- 
trol of the cutting of timber on private lands. Possibly because the 
cuttmg is thus restricted and it is a matter of necessity to get the 
utmost value out of the cutting that is permitted, particular attention 
is paid m Sweden to the elimination of waste in the forests. High 
stumps are unknown. Top logs are rarely left in the woods. Swed- 
ish lumbermen not only have endeavored to obtain the highest pos- 
sible prices for the maui product, saw logs; they have also aimed at 
the closest possible utilization of the waste products of loggmg 
operations. 

Approximately 20 per cent of the Swedish forests constitute broad- 
leaf species and about 80 per cent coniferous species. The broad- 
leaf species are of small unportance, because the stands are scattered 
and the supply is insufficient to cover the needs of the country for 
hardwoods. The coniferous species afford important quantities of 
material for export, either as lumber or m the form of manufactured 

11 



12 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

products. There are only two species of coniferous woods of any 
importance, namely, pine (Pinus sylvestris) and spruce (Picea ex- 
celsa). The pine resembles the Norway pine of the Lake States, 
and the spruce that of the western coast of the United States; but 
the growth is smaller and the trees have more branches, so that the 
limiber produced is generally very knotty. On account of the north- 
ern location of the Swedish forests, the growth is dense and the tex- 
ture of the wood is solid. 

The age of maturity is reached at different stages in various parts 
of the country — ^m the most favorable cases, in 75 to 80 years, and 
in very extreme cases, in about 200 years. Most of the forests are 
located in northern Sweden, but southern Sweden is the largest pro- 
ducer of lumber at the present time, owing to the fact that this dis- 
trict is more densely populated. There are only a few virgin forests 
left, because the Swedish forests have been subject to exploitation 
for centuries. 

Strict laws govern the management of the Swedish forests in all 
parts of the country. There is, however, no common law for the 
M^hole country, as climatic conditions have necessitated special laws 
for the different districts. These laws have to do with the cutting 
regulations and compulsory reforestation of cut-over lands. Lately, 
a law has been made to prevent the cutting of immature trees unless 
such cutting is necessary in order to improve the condition of the 
forests. Reforestation on a large scale has been carried on in Sweden 
by both private and public enterprise, because the forest owners in 
that country regard it as a commercial, paymg proposition. The 
forest laws in Sweden and the methods of enforcing them offer much 
to interest the people of the United States, because conditions in 
Sweden are similar to those ui some parts of this country, 

Swedish forests will never be cut out. On the contrary, there is no 
doubt that under the present system of management the quantity 
of standing timber will be not only mamtamed but increased through 
reforestation, the drainage of swamp lands, and other measures, 

A glance at the map of Sweden will immediately show the great 
advantage which that country has m its network of rivers; the dis- 
tance from the place where loggmg operations are carried on to the 
nearest waterway is only a few miles. Practically every forest dis- 
trict has been exploited; there are only a few areas in the northern- 
most part of the country where cutting has not been carried on, 
owing to the fact that the rivers have been unsuitable for floating logs. 

The cuttmg of saw logs is carried on only durmg the winter in 
order to prevent deterioration in the quality of the logs through 
discoloration. Stumps seldom exceed 3 inches m height m the for- 
ests, and the utmost care is given to the cuttmg of suitable log lengths 
and sizes, so that the best possible result will be obtained when the 
logs are cut into lumber. No logging machinery of any knid is gen- 
erally used in Sweden, although American tractors have lately been 
introduced into that coimtry for haulmg logs. Until recently horses 
had been used exclusively. The logs are loaded on sleighs and 
taken on the snow to the nearest waterway, where they are piled 
on the river bank or on the ice ready to be dumped mto the water 
in the sprmg. The floatmg of logs is usually carried on by a number 
of floating associations established by log owners m the various sec- 
tions, the logs being floated for joint account. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 13 

No country equals Sweden in floating facilities, and the cheap 
transportation from the forest to the mill accomits for the fact that 
Sweden can effect a very close utilization of its forest products — 
closer than that of any other comitry, with the possible exception 
of Germany. Top logs, even down to one or two inches in top diame- 
ter, are bunched and strapped with steel wire and floated to the near- 
est charcoal plant, where they are converted into charcoal. The saw 
logs are, on an average, 6^ to 7 inches m top diameter and average 
in length about 17 to 18 feet. The logs are generally barked m the 
woods, in order to prevent an accumulation of bark in the river and at 
the mills, which would seriously hinder floating and otherwise cause 
considerable damage. 

The manufacture of lumber in Sweden is characterized by the 
same careful utilization of material as the logging operations, so as 
to obtain the most profitable dimensions from the log, to minimize 
the amount of waste material, and to turn the waste material to 
useful purposes. Through years of experience the Swedish manu- 
factiners have produced a type of machinery especially adapted to 
the Swedish conditions. Following the increased value of stumpage, 
their machinery has been constructed with a view to effecting the 
largest possible saving in raw material, and the gauge of the saw 
blades is always very small. All large mills are equipped with gang 
saws; only the smaller miUs have circular saws. The gang saws 
give the best results because they saw lumber to exact sizes. Careful 
manufacture is the principal feature of the Swedish sawmills. The 
green lumber is given a certain excess to provide for shrinkage, and 
after it has been seasoned it has exactly the required dimensions. 
All guesswork has been eliminated from the Swedish sawing schedules, 
and the method of obtaining the most profitable dimensions of 
lumber has been calculated with scientific exactness. The various 
sawing systems employed are described in detail in this report. 
Particular attention is given to edging the lumber so as to obtain 
the largest possible sizes, because the price of lumber is determined 
by the size rather than by the thickness. The lumber is not trimmed 
in the mill. It is cut to almost any dimension according to English 
measurements. Metric measurements are seldom used in Sweden in 
connection with lumber for export. The lumber is edged on the 
half inch, and in thickness is cut to almost any size, but usually on the 
quarter inch. 

The actual waste in the sawmills is negligible. Even the smallest 
piece of lumber is usually turned to some use. If too small to 
produce laths, broom handles, box shooks, etc., it is converted into 
charcoal or pulp. The sawmills are generally run in connection with 
pulp factories, and many mills also operate planing mills or box 
factories. The planing mills are equipped with Swedish planers, 
which show some excellent features in the way of saving material 
and producing perfectly smooth products. The operation of Swedish 
box factories, planing mills, and sawmills is based on the skillful 
utilization of the raw material. The profit of the operation may 
hinge, in many cases, on the thickness of the saw blades used. 

Nearly all the Swedish mills season then lumber in the open air 
and it is never shipped without being air-dry. The seasoning thus 
requires two to seven or eight months, according to the season of the 
year and the location of the mJU. The lumber is trimmed before 



14 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

shipment. The trimming is effected on the odd and even foot and 
much attention is paid to trimming in such a way that the lumber 
will yield the highest economical result when sold. The mill ends 
are carefully collected and re trimmed and put up in suitable 
lengths from 1 foot (sometimes from 6 inches) to 5^ feet. This prod- 
uct is either sold to the local box factories or shipped in large 
quantities to foreign coimtries. 

In regard to shipping, Sweden occupies a peculiar position, because 
the majority of the lumber shipping ports are closed b;^ ice during 
several months of the year. Only a few ports can ship the year 
round. An interesting enterprise has just been started in Sweden to 
raft sa%\Ti lumber, and this promises a great deal for the future. 

During late years the Swedish exporters have combined in selling 
for export. They maintain a strong organization and have minimum 
prices established to which all closely adhere. This association has 
laid down specific rules for the handling of lumber for export, and 
the Swedish exporters also cooperate mth the exporters in the 
neighboring countries in regard to prices and selling conditions. 
The raw material and the cost of labor are too high in Sweden to 
allow any cutthroat competition, and the Swedish laws do not prevent 
combinations of manufacturers in order to stimulate prices. The 
Swedish lumber exporters have taken advantage of these conditions 
and have generally been in a position to obtain such prices as would 
give them a reasonable return on the investment. The market for 
Swedish lumber abroad is so firmly established that it practically 
sells itself without any great effort on the part of the Swedish ex- 
porters. 

The general rule is to handle the Imnber through foreign agents, 
but many firms prefer to let domestic agents handle their output 
on a commission basis. The location of Sweden, close to the most 
important lumber-importing countries, has enabled the Swedish ex- 
porters to keep in close touch with their trade, and they thoroughly 
understand the conditions abroad. 

The prices of lumber have increased very materially since the war, 
as have the prices of stumpage and labor. The position of the 
Swedish lumbermen is now considered exceptionally good because 
the war and the high prices have enabled them to better their con- 
dition. It is believed that before the war the profits realized on the 
lumber export business generally were 6 to 8 per cent on the capital 
invested, which is not considered wholly satisfactory, having in mind 
the risk connected with the business. 

The Swedish lumber exporters will probably maintain their 
position; but it is doubtful whether one may expect any increase 
over the present quantity of lumber for export from that country, 
because the forest resources are devoted, to a great extent, to the 

Production of pulp, which generally offers more profit than lumber, 
t is improbable, therefore, that the exports of limaber from Sweden 
will exceed 2,000,000,000 feet annually, which has been the average 
figure in years past. 

There is a marked difference between Swedish lumber and the 
principal species of American lumber exported to foreign markets. 
Swedish lumber is to bo considered as good construction lumber; its 
many knots render it unsuitable for special purposes to which the 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 15 

better grades of American lumber are adapted. The sizes of Swedish 
lumber run smaller than those obtainable in the United States. 
There should be no question, therefore, of serious competition 
between Swedish and American lumber if the exporters in both 
countries are thoroughly familiar with the character of the lumber 
exported. The best species of American lumber have sometimes 
been sold in foreign markets at the same prices as Swedish lumber; 
but this, no doubt, has been due, on the one hand, to the unf amiliar- 
ity of American exporters with the character of the lumber shipped 
from Sweden and, on the other, to the excellent Swedish, manufac- 
turing and marketing methods. There is a demand in most countries 
for American lumber, since it has qualities seldom or never found 
in lumber from other countries. The market is apparently so 
extensive that there is no need of cutthroat competition, since the 
accessible forest areas of the world seem to be linuted in comparison 
with the demand for lumber and lumber products. 



GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY. 

Sweden (Sverige) is situated between 55° 20' and 69° 4' north 
latitude and between 10° 58' and 24° 10' east lon^tude. Sweden 
constitutes the eastern part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. The 
country is bounded on the west and north by Norway, on the east by 
Finland and the Gulf of Bothnia, on the south and southeast by the 
Baltic Sea, and on the southwest by the Cattegat, a branch of the 
North Sea. 

The area of Sweden is 110,771,000 acres, or about 58 per cent of the 
area of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Of this area 9,336,000 acres 
(8.4 per cent) constitute inland water. The area of Sweden is some- 
what smaller than the area of Spain or than the combined land areas 
of the States of Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New 
York. The coast line is about 1,550 miles, the extreme length from 
north to south 980 miles, and the extreme width from west to east 
310 miles. There are only two large islands, which are located off 
the southeastern coast — Gottland, with an area of 740,000 acres, and 
Oland, with an area of 330,000 acres. 

Sweden is divided politically into 25 Provinces. The area of these 
Provinces and that of the largest four lakes is as follows : 



Provinces and lakes. 



Land. 



Water. 



Total. 



Percent- 
age of 
water. 



City of Stockholm 

Rural district of Stockholm . 

Upsala .^ 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Jonkoping 

Kronoberg 

Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Halland 

Goteborg and Bohus , 

E Ifsborg 

Skaraborg 

Vermland 

Orebro 

Vestmanland 

Kopparberg 

Ge vleborg 

Vesternorrland 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten 

Norrbotten 

Lake Wenner 

Lake Wetter 

Lake Malar 

LakeHjelmar 



Acres. 

33, 000 
1, 826, 000 
1, 265, 000 
1,541,000 
2,464,000 
2,623,000 
2,201,000 
2,708,000 
770,000 
716, 000 
1, 543, 000 
1, 170, 000 
1,180,000 
1,210,000 
2, 886, 000 
1,995,000 
4, 336, 000 
2, 062, 000 
1,591,000 
6, 978, 000 
4,497,000 
5, 962, 000 
11,765,000 
13, 732, 000 
24, 380, 000 



Total, Sweden . 



Acres. 

2,000 

86, 000 

48, 000 

142, 000 

266, 000 

224, 000 

248, 000 

144, 000 

10,000 

29, 000 

53,000 

28,000 

37,000 

37,000 

260,000 

100,000 

439, 000 

193, 000 

79,000 

436, 000 

378, 000 

347, 000 

972, 000 

831,000 

1,695,000 

1,376,000 

469, 000 

282, 000 

122, 000 



Acres. 

35, 000 

1,912,000 

1,313,000 

1,683,000 

2, 730, 000 

2, 847, 000 

2, 449, 000 

2, 852, 000 

780, 000 

745, 000 

1, 596, 000 

1, 198, 000 

1, 217, 000 

1, 247, 000 

3, 146, 000 

2,095,000 

4, 775, 000 

2, 258, 000 

1,670,000 

7,414,000 

4, 875, 000 

6,309,000 

12, 737, 000 

14,563,000 

26, 075, 000 

2, 249, 000 



5.7 
4.5 
3.7 
8.4 
9.7 
7.9 
10.1 
5.0 
1.3 
3.9 
3.3 
2.3 
3.0 
3.0 
8.3 
4.8 
9.2 
8.7 
4.7 
5.8 
7.8 
5.5 
7.6 
5.7 
6.5 



101,434,000 



9,336,000 110,770,000 



8.4 



In this report the following terms will be used: Norrland (North- 
land), in northern Sweden, comprising the area north of the Dal 
River; central Sweden, the area south of the Dal River down to 
about 58° north latitude, comprising the regions surrounding the 
Great Lakes; southern Sweden, the area south of 5S° north latitude. 

16 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of Statu Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. 

FIG. 2.— EXCEPTIONALLY FINE STAND OF PINE IN STATE FOREST. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 



SS^IT^ 


*^ 


^^9 


^^ 


'*WlflBr" 


4^1^ 


N^i^^ni' 


^"q^ 




Y^JuBFSq 


IhIk^ ^' 


. 


► • J««!»^ 




lt '^^^^J 




■•^^S^' 




^ •^'* 


kjMknj^ ^ ''^- '>«£I^VL 


^i--^- -iHE ■ #^ 




fc I / 


fSLjJ:*^-*^ 


|, :;F-..Jil -i. 


fc',^-ijBBjB 


^Sn a| 


J ■■■Tiral ijr '^mN 




s. ..,-?'r...»JiaKr.i!c 4Enk 






^E^Jtf!^hr%. -^jyitt 






Ht^lr'^^K 


I^^^Kj^B^b .-1 '!3k^^^| 




- 


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^1 



Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. 

FIG. 3.— TYPICAL PINE FOREST IN NORTHERN NORRLAND. 




FIG. 4.— SECTION OF SWEDISH PINE. 



SWEDISH LUMBER USTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 17 
TOPOGRAPHICAL CONDITIONS. 

The mountainous districts in Sweden are found in the northwestern 
part, along the Norwegian border, and extend south to about 62° 
north latitude. This mountainous section is about 70 miles wide on 
the Swedish side. In the extreme northwestern comer this range 
(Kolen) attains its maximum heights, the highest peak being about 
7,000 feet above sea level. Farther south the mountains decrease 
in height. From these mountainous districts the country gradually 
slopes in an eastern and southeastern direction toward the ocean. 
Low ridges and hills covered with forests are found in the rest of 
northern Sweden and the landscape is very similar to that of Finland. 
The altitude of this part of the country varies from 650 to 1,600 feet 
above sea level. 

In the coastal district the country is level. In central and southern 
Sweden the country is rather undulating and grows more and more 
level toward the south. In the extreme southern part of Sweden the 
landscape is very similar to that of Denmark. The only highlands 
found in southern and central Sweden are the regions south of the 
Great Lakes in the interior, which constitute a plateau ranging in 
height from 600 to 1,200 feet. In northern Sweden large swamps are 
found, amounting in certain sections to more than 40 per cent of the 
total area. 

The follo^ving table shows the area of different kinds of land in 
Sweden and the proportion of each kind to the total land area in 
1915 and 1916: 



Kind of land. 


1915 


1916 


Acres. 


Percent. 


Acres. 


Percent. 


Cultivatedareas 


9, 318, 000 

3, 205, 000 

55, 640, 000 

33, 271, 000 


9.1 
3.3 

54.8 
32.8 


9,366,000 

3, 073, 000 

57,240,000 

31,755,000 


9.2 


Meadows . 


3.0 


Forests 


56.5 


Unproductive land 


31.3 






Total 


101, 434, 000 


100.0 


101,434,000 


100.0 







The momitainous areas of Sweden are not very extensive, and the 
unproductive areas consist largely of marshes, peat bogs, etc. This 
unproductive area, no doubt, will be turned in time into forest land, 
and it is therefore of interest to consider the area of these peat bogs, 
etc., in the various Provinces. The area of the peat bogs and swamps 
in Sweden has not been definitely computed, but in 1912 it was esti- 
mated by Dr. Hj . v. Feilitzen to be as follows : 



Provinces. 



Rural district of Stockholm 

Upsala 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Jonkoping 

EjoDoberg 

Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Halland 

Goteborg and Bohus 

2092°— 21 1 



Acres. 



49, 
111, 
74, 
198, 
362, 
310, 
272, 
74, 
44, 
169, 
30, 
99, 
10, 



Pro\ances. 



Elfsborg 

Skaraborg 

Vermland 

Orebro 

Vestmanland 

Kopparberg 

Gevleborg 

Vesternorrland 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten 

Norrbotten 

Total, Sweden 



Acres. 



209, 000 
198,000 
242,000 
222,000 
148,000 
890,000 
593,000 
717,000 
483,000 

178,000 



12,682,000 



18 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 
CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. 

More than 15 per cent of the total area of Sweden is located north of 
the Arctic Circle, and in these sections of the country the climate is 
semi-Arctic, On account of the great distance from north to south, 
the climate necessarily varies a great deal in the different parts of the 
country. In southern Sweden the climate is mild. 

Sweden is benefited to a great extent by the Gulf Stream and has a 
much milder climate than many other countries in the same latitude. 
Tobacco, for instance, is grown as far north as 59° north latitude, and 
sugar beets are produced in quantities large enough to supply the 
entire population with this commodity. 

The mean annual temperature in the northern parts is below freez- 
ing point, while in the most favorable sections in southern Sweden it is 
about 45° F. 

The following schedule gives the mean annual temperature (Falir- 
enheit) in different latitudes in Sweden: 



Towns. 


Latitude. 


Temper- 
ature. 


Towns. 


Latitude. 


Temper- 
ature. 




68 27 
63 49 
62 37 


27 
36 

38 


Stockholm 


.59 21 
56 40 
55 42 


42 






45 




Lund 


45 









The highest temperature in the summer is about the same all over 
Sweden or about 80° F. and the lowest temperature in the winter 
is 49° to 59° below zero in the northernmost part of the country and 
about 4° below zero in southern Sweden. 

Snow covers the ground about a month and a half i,n southern 
Sweden and up to six or seven months in northern Sweden. The 
lakes and rivers freeze in November and the ice melts 4 or 5 months 
later in southern Sweden and 5 J to 6^ months later in northern 
Sweden. 

The ocean usually does not freeze on the west, south, and southeast 
coasts, but the entire Baltic has frozen over in extremely cold 
winters. The Gulf of Bothnia always freezes north of the Aland 
Islands, but a channel for traffic from Stockholm to Abo, Finland, is 
kept open by ice breakers. The ports south of Stockholm may be 
frozen for a short time in the winter, but during recent years naviga- 
tion has been kept open almost the year round by ice breakers. The 
GuK of Bothnia generally freezes at the end of November; the ice 
breaks in the northern sections in the latter part of May or the begin- 
ning of June, and farther south during the month of May or sometimes 
at the end of April. 

The annual precipitation averages about 20 inches for the entire 
country and varies from about 17 inches in Norrland to 27 inches in 
the west coastal districts. 



INTERIOR WATERWAYS AND RAILROADS. 

About 8^ per cent of the area of Sweden is occupied by rivers and 
lakes. From the mountainous districts in the northwest many im- 
portant rivers flow in a southeasterly direction, emptying into the 
Gulf of Bothnia. The rivers in central and southern Sweden are gen- 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



19 



erally shorter and the majority of them either run through the Great 
Lakes or originate in the highlands of southern Sweden, rmming south- 
west, south, or southeast. For the lumber industry the rivers in 
northern Sweden are the most important, as they afford excellent 
facilities for transporting logs. 

Fourteen of the most important rivers in Sweden drain 69 per cent 
of the total area. The largest 14 water systems, each draining more 
than 2,500,000 acres, are as follows, according to location from north 
to south: 



Water systems. 



Rivers in Norrland 

Tornea 

Kalix 

Lulea 

Pitea 

SkeUeftea 

Umea 

Angerman 

Indal 



Length. 



Miles. 
233 
208 
193 
191 
205 
237 
242 
196 



Drainage 
area. 



Acres. 

6,178,000 

4,423,000 

6,227,000 

2,748,000 

2,866,000 

6, 598, 000 

7,808,000 

6,573,000 



Water systems. 



Rivers in Norrland— Contd. 

Ljungan 

Ljusnan 



Water systems in central and 
southern Sweden: 

Malar-Norrstrom 

Wetter-Motalastrom 

Wenner-Gota 



I^ength. 



^mcs. 

168 
230 
283 



Drainage 
area. 



Acres. 
3,163,000 
4,892,000 
7,215,000 



5,510,000 
3.8:30,000 
11,985,000 



In central Sweden there are several large lakes, the most important 
of which are Wenner (1,376,000 acres). Wetter (469,000 acres), Malar 
(282,000 acres), and Hjelmar (122,000 acres). In northern Sweden 
the lakes are fewer and smaller than those m central Sweden. The 
following are the largest lakes in Norrland: Storsjoii (111,000 acres), 
Tornetresk (78,000 acres), Siljan (72,000 acres), and Homavan 
(65,000 acres). The Klar River, which originates in Norway and is 
228 miles long, empties into Lake Wenner. The Gota River runs out 
of this lake and empties into the Cattegat River. The total length 
of the whole water system of the Gota and Klar Rivers is 354 miles. 

It is estimated m Sweden that about 3,500,000 horsepower can be 
harnessed before 1959. Up to the present time, about 1,000,000 
horsepower has been developed. Water power is of great importance 
to Swedish mdustries, because the country has practically no coal. 

Many of the waterways m Sweden have been improved to make 
them suitable for traffic; particularly in southern and central 
Sweden a network of canals has been constructed durmg the last 100 
years, and it is now possible for small boats and barges to pass from 
the west coast through central Sweden over to the east coast. The 
total length of all canals in Sweden was 779 miles m 1917. 

Sever^ sluiced canals have been constructed, thereby enabling 
ships to pass up rivers where the traffic formerly was obstructed by 
waterfalls. 

The two principal canals in Sweden are Trollhatte and Gota. 
Trollhatte Canal, south of Wenner Lake in the Gota River, is 52 miles 
long, 55 feet wide, and 14J feet deep. It was built by the Govern- 
ment at a cost of about $7,500,000. Ocean-going steamers can now 
go up this canal to Lake Wenner and load at the mills on the northern 
shores of the lake. This is a very important means of transportation 
for the lumber for export from these regions, and the average annual 
freight passmg through this canal in the last few years has been 
about 810,000 tons. The Gota Canal connects the two lakes, Wenner 
and Wetter, with the Baltic. It is 23^ feet wide and 9| feet deep, and 
cost about $4,000,000. About 365,000 tons of freight were trans- 



20 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

ported through this canal annually in recent years. The average 
annual tonnage passing through the principal 10 canals in' Sweden 
has amounted to 3,770,000 tons in recent years. 

On the larger lakes in Sweden there is a heavy steamship traffic, 
which is concentrated mainly on the lakes in the central and southern 
parts of the country. 

The railroad system covers mainly central and southern Sweden, 
where the largest part of the population is located and where the 
prmcipal factories and mdustries are established. The total length 
of the Swedish railroads was 9,368 miles in 1917, of which the Gov- 
enmient o^vned lines 3,268 miles in length. In northern Sweden an 
electric railroad, which has been m operation for a considerable time, 
is engaged in the transportation of iron ore to the ports m Norway 
and Sweden. Sweden has more railroad mileage in proportion to 
the population than any other comitry in Europe. 

The railroads play an important part in the lumber-export trade, 
particularly for many interior sawmills in southern Sweden. In 
this part of the country the fioatmg facilities are imsatisfactory and 
the transportation of logs and lumber is carried on almost exclu- 
sively by the railroads. 

The raihoad sj^stem m northern Sweden has not been very satis- 
factory, but new Imes are under construction that will provide for 
better commmiication between the coast cities. An mland railroad 
also has been started, which will open up considerable forest areas 
for exploitation. In connection with this railroad construction, the 
Government is contemplating a more extensive colonization of this 
northern region. 

INDUSTRIES. 

The following figures (the' latest available) show the number of 
persons in Sweden engaged in various occupations in 1910: 

Persons. 

Agriculture and cattle raising 2, 233, 000 

Fishing 39,000 

Forest operations 94, 000 

Industry and mining 1, 532, 000 

Commerce and transportation 579, 000 

Other occupations 1, 045, 000 

Total 5, 522, 000 

Agriculture is thus the principal activity in Sweden, although a 
comparatively small area is under cultivation. The value of the 
crops in 1917 was about $407,000,000 and in 1913 $230,000,000. 

Cattle raising and dairying are important branches of agricultural 
activities. Although Sweden is an important producer of grain and 
foodstuffs, it is to a great extent dependent on the imports of these 
commodities from foreign countries. 

Besides agriculture, the chief natural resources are the forests and 
the mineral deposits which, together with the waterfalls, constitute 
the principal bases of Sweden's economic activities. Only very 
limited quantities of coal are mined and there are no oil wells in the 
country. 

Next to the agricultural activities, the lumber, pulp, and paper in- 
dustries are the most important in Sweden and play a particularly 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AITD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



21 



important part in Swedish export trade. These industries will be 
described in detail later in this report. 

Mining is one of the oldest industries in Sweden, dating back more 
than 700 years. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries Swe- 
den was the largest producer in the world of iron and copper. The 
Swedish iron mines are world famous, and the country also possesses 
copper, silver, zinc, and other metals. The value of the production 
of iron ore in 1917 was $22,500,000, and in 1911-1915, $13,900,000. 
The total value of the production of other minerals in 1917 was 
$3,900,000 and in 1911-1915 $1,100,000. 

Sweden also has important metal-working industries, in which 
iron and steel products play the most important part. 

Shipbuilding, machine works (sawmill and pulp-mill machinery is 
a specialty), "and a number of other activities along these lines have 
developed very rapidly during the last half century. 

The factory districts are located mainly in central and southern 
Sweden, where there is access to water power. The following table 
shows the value of production in different Swedish industries in 1913, 
1915, and 1916: 



Industries. 



1913 



1915 



1916 



Mining and metal products 

Peat, coal, stone, glass, cement, and other products 

Lumber products 

Pulp and paper products 

FoodstulTs 

Textile products 

I>eather and rubber products 

Chemical products 

Light and power plants 

Total 



$154,400,000 
24,700,000 
69, 100, 000 
60, 600, 000 
151, 400, 000 
54, 900, 000 
26,300,000 
25, 70n, 000 
12, 600, 000 



$189, 500, 000 
24, 100, 000 
75,000,000 
70,800,000 
193,800.000 
67, 500; 000 
51, 200, 000 
39, 400, 000 
16, 300, 000 



$297,600,000 

■ 28,800,000 

109,300,000 

118,300,000 

233,300,000 

87, 700, 000 

57,900,000 

58, 000, 000 

21,400,000 



679,700,000 



727,600,000 



1,012,300,000 



MERCHANT MARINE AND COMMERCE. 

The latest statistics, for January 1, 1919, give the Swedish mer- 
chant marine as follows: 1,079 sailing vessels, of 124,372 gross tons, 
and 1,605 steam and motor vessels, of 925,084 gross tons — a total of 
2,684 vessels, of 1,049,456 gross tons. 

Shipbuilding has grown mainly since the war started^ and energetic 
steps are being taken by the Swedish shipowners to build up an ade- 
quate merchant marine, because it is realized what a great advantage 
it would be for the Swedish exporters to depend upon native-owned 
ships. (See chapter on Shipping.) 

Nearly all the ports of Sweden are safe and well protected by is- 
lands. In the Gulf of Bothnia the tide is almost insignificant, and 
this circumstance greatly contributes to the favorable port condi- 
tions on the east coast of Sweden. 

Until recently there have been no free ports in Sweden. Such 
free ports, however, are now being instituted at Malmo and Stock- 
holm, and one is contemplated at Goteborg, mainly with the view of 
obtaining the transit trade to Russia after conditions have become 
settled in that country. 

The western, southern, and southeastern coasts of Sweden are 
open the year round to navigation; but the other coastal districts of 
Sweden are handicapped by ice during the winter. 



22 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



The following table gives the values of exports and imports of 
Sweden from 1905 to 1917, exclusive of the values of unwrought 
gold, silver, and coin: 



Years. 



1905, 
1906, 
1907, 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 



Imports. 



S153,781,000 
171,076,000 
180,589,000 
160,132,000 
164,445,000 
179,349,000 
185,040,000 



Exports. 



$120,657,000 
135,047,000 
140,610,000 
129,180,000 
126,758,000 
158,885,000 
177,828,000 



Years. 



1912. 
1913, 
1914 
1915 
1916 
1917 



Imports. 



8209,816,000 
226,872,000 
194,543,000 
306,191,000 
305,136,000 
203,307,000 



Exports. 



$203,806,000 
219,049,000 
206,991,000 
352,786,000 
417, 109, 000 
361,679,000 




Fig. 5. — Exports from Sweden in 1913, by groups of articles. 

The principal commodities imported are grain, coffee, tobacco, and 
other foodstuffs; cotton and other raw materials for textile products; 
textiles, hides, lubricants, petroleum, rubber, dyestuffs, machinery, 
and large quantities of coal and coke. 

The principal commodities exported are lumber and lumber prod- 
ucts, pulp, paper, ore (mainly iron ore), metal and metal products, 
dairy products, matches, and stone for building and paving purposes. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 23 
POPULATION AND PRINCIPAL CITIES. 

The population of Sweden on December 81, 1917, is given as about 
5,800,000. The density of population for the whole country was 
33^ inhabitants per square mile. The population varies from 200 
to 250 inhabitants per square mile in the more tliickly settled districts 
to only 5 to 7 inhabitants per square mile in the northernmost Prov- 
inces. 

Besides about 25,000 Finns and 7,000 Lapps, who live in the 
northern districts of the country, there are about 40,000 inhabitants 
of other foreign nationalities and the remainder of the population 
(5,728,000) are Swedes. The Swedes belong to the Scandinavian 
branch of the Germanic race and are closely related to the Norwe- 
gians, Danes, and the Swedish-speaking people in Finland. 

The language spoken is Swedish, which closely resembles Norwe- 
gian and Danish, In the northernmost districts of the country 
Finnish is spoken to some extent among the population along the 
Finnish border. 

The emigration, particularly to the United States, has been con- 
siderable during the last half century. It is estimated that 700,000 
Swedes now live in the United States. 

The capital of Sweden is Stockholm, on the eastern coast, with 
approximately 413,000 inhabitants. Goteborg (197,000 inhabitants) 
is situated on the west coast and is the most important shipping port 
in Sweden. Malmo (113,000 inhabitants), on the southeastern coast, 
is important as the transfer point between Sweden and Denmark. 
Norrkoping (58,000 inhabitants), south of Stockholm, is a factory 
and shipping point. Helsingborg (45,000 inhabitants) is an impor- 
tant shippinj^ and factory district on the sioutheastern coast of Swe- 
den, south of Goteborg. Gevle (37,000 inhabitants! is an important 
lumber-shipping port north of Stockholm on the Gulf of Botluiia. 
Orebro (35,000 inhabitants) is a railroad center in central Sweden. 
Eskilstuna (31,000 inhabitants) is an important factory town in cen- 
tral Sweden, west of Stockholm. 

The most important lumber-shipping ports in Norrland are Sunds- 
vall (17,000 inhabitants), which is located in central Norrland, and 
Hemosand (10,000 inhabitants), located north of Sundsvall. 

MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEASURES. 

The Swedish monetary unit is the crown (krona, abbreviated kr.), 
which is divided into 100 ore. The monetary system is the same as 
that of Norway and Denmark. The par value of the crown in 
United States currency is $0.26799, and the equivalent of one dollar 
is thus 3.73148 crowns. The standard of value is gold. 

The metric system of weights and measures is obligatory by law. 
In the lumber trade English measurements are usually employed. 



PART I.— FOREST RESOURCES AND LOGGING AND FLOATING 

OPERATIONS. 

FOREST RESOURCES. 



Climate and soil combined make Sweden a typical forest country. 
Before the first settlers came the comitry was practically covered 
with forests. It was difficult for these settlers to clear the land, and 
until a few decades ago the people in the most remote parts of Sweden 
burned large areas of forest lands so as to clear them for cultivation. 

Of the total area of Sweden, including inland water, about 
57,000,000 acres, or 51 per cent, constitute productive forests. 
With the exception of Finland, Sweden has the largest percentage 
of productive forest land in Europe, where the average is 33 per cent. 
Sweden has approximately 960 acres of productive forest land per 
100 inhabitants, and in this respect also it is ahead of the other 
European countries, except Finland; the average for Europe is 183 
acres. 

The productive forest area of the European countries, exclusive of 
Sweden, Norway, and Finland, is as follows, according to statistics 
compiled by G. Sundbarg, a Swedish forest expert: 



Countries. 



European Russia 

Gennany 

Austria 

France 

Hungary 

Spain 

Turkey. 

Italy 

Bulgaria 

Rumania 



Productive 
forest land. 



Acres. 

485,635,000 

34,585,000, 

24,161,000r 

23,529,000 

22,377,000 

20,964,000 

10,625,000 

10,269,000 

6,400,000 

5,639,000 



Percent- 
age of 
total area. 



40.4 
26.2 
32.6 
17.8 
27.9 
16.8 
23.4 
14.6 
27.0 
17.6 



Countries. 



Bosnia and Herzegovina 

Serbia 

United Kingdom 

Switzerland 

Greece 

Portugal 

Belgium 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Luxemburg 



Productive 
forest land. 



Percent- 
age of 
totalarea. 



Acres. 

5,622,000 

3,707,000 

2,871,000 

2,115,000 

2,100,000 

1,557,000 

1,285,000 

699, 000 

635,000 

190,000 



45.5 
31.2 

3.7 
21.3 
12.7 

7.1 
17.7 

7.4 

7.9 
29.7 



The following table shows the forest area in each Swedish Province, 
together with the percentage of productive forest land of each Prov- 
ince in proportion to the total area of productive forest land in 
Sweden in 1915 and 1916, according to the Statistisk Arsbok (Sta- 
tistical Yearbook) of Sweden for 1918 and 1919: 



Provinces. 



City of Stockholm 

Rural district of Stockholm 

Upsala 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Jonkoping 

Kronoberg 

24 



1915 



Productive 
forest area. 



Acres. 
15,000 

1,135,000 
695,000 
996, 000 

1,547,000 

1,400,000 
950,000 



Percent- 
age of 
totalarea 
of pro- 
ductive 
forests. 



2.0 
1.2 
1.8 
2.8 
2.7 
1.7 



Productive 
forest area. 



Acres. 

17,000 
1,158,000 
709,000 
998,000 
1,561,000 
1,512,000 
1,052,000 



Percent- 
age of 
totalarea 
of pro- 
ductive 
forests. 



2.0 
1.2 
1.7 
2.7 
2.6 
1.8 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



25 



Provinces. 



Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Halland 

Goteborg and Bohus . 

Elfsborg 

Skaraborg 

Vermland 

Orebro 

Vestmanland 

Kopparberg 

Gevleborg 

Vestemorrland 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten 

Norrbotten 



1915 



Productive 
forest area. 



Acres. 

1,671,000 

3^4,000 

357, 000 

043,000 

141,000 

346, 000 

416,000 

1,853,000 

767,000 

3,363,000 

1,333,000 

912,000 

5,114,000 

3,669,000 

4,706,000 

7,308,000 

7,410,000 

8,419,000 



Total. 



55, 640, 000 



Percent- 
age of 
total area 
of pro- 
ductive 
forests. 



3.0 
0.7 
0.6 
1.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.7 
3.3 
1.4 
6.0 
2.4 
1.6 
9.2 
6.6 
8.5 
13.3 
13.4 
15.1 



100.0 



Productive 
forest area. 



Acres. 

1,697,000 

391,000 

370, 000 

647,000 

143, 000 

368, 000 

418,000 

1,926,000 

793,000 

3,385,000 

1,371,000 

932, 000 

5,133,000 

3,663,000 

5,054,000 

7,910,000 

7,503,000 

8,529,000 



57,240,000 



Percent- 
age of 
total area 
of pro- 
ductive 
forests. 



3.0 
0.7 
0.6 
1.1 
0.3 
0.6 
0.7 
3.4 
1.4 
5.9 
2.4 
1.6 
9.0 
6.4 
8.8 
13.9 
13.2 
15.0 



100.0 



About 65 per cent of the productive forest land in Sweden is lo- 
cated in the district of Norrland and Dalecarlia (the district adjacent 
to the Dal River). In this part of Sweden, however, approximately 
17,000,000 acres of land are located above the timber limit, and Norr- 
land also contains a large percentage of unproductive land, such as 
swamps, marshes, etc., so that the productive forest area in propor- 
tion to the total area is not very large in this part of the country. 
The Provinces having the largest area of productive forests in pro- 
portion to their tot^ area are Vermland, Kopparberg, Gevleborg, 
and Vestemorrland. The southernmost Provinces of Sweden are 
now but sparsely forested, because the forests that once covered 
these areas have been cut out during the last few centuries in order 
that the land might be used for agricultural purposes. 

FOREST REGIONS. 

As a consequence of the different climatic conditions in northern 
and southern Sweden, the forest regions differ widely in character. 
The*ma]ority of the forest lands in Sweden will always be best suited 
for forestry, as the soil is often unfavorable for agricultural purposes, 
These conditions apply especially to the northern Provinces. About 
85 to 90 per cent of the stands in the Swedish forests constitute conif- 
erous species and 10 to 15 per cent broad-leafed. 

The Swedish forests may be divided into three distinct forest regions. 
The north Baltic coniferous region covers the territory north of a line 
from the north shore of Lake Wenner to a point about 50 miles north 
of the Dal River; in other words, practically the entire territory of 
Norrland and the district of Dalecarlia. The south Baltic coniferous 
region starts immediately south of the north Baltic coniferous region 
and covers southern Sweden with the exception of the southernmost 
parts; namely, Skane and part of the Provinces of Halland and Ble- 
kinge. The Central European beech region covers the extreme south 
of Sweden. 



26 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



NORTH BALTIC CONIFEROUS REGION. 



The productive forest area of the north Baltic coniferous region 
comprises approximately 36,800,000 acres. Except in the southern 
part, where the mining industry was developed more than 700 years 
ago, using large quantities of charcoal for smelting ore, this region 
was not exploited for forest products until about 100 years ago. 
The exportation of forest products started on a large scale about 1850 
to 1860, and the present development of the forests in these regions 
dates from this time. 




C 



Fig. 6.— Scandinavian forest regions. 

At present nearly all the privately owned forests in this part of 
Sweden have been exploited. Only a few stands of virgin forests in 
private ownership are left. The State forests, ht)wever, which are 
very extensive in this part of Sweden, have not been much developed 
and consequently contain considerable overmature stands. These 
virgin forests are found in the less accessible interior districts; the 
coastal regions were the first to be exploited. 

The northern parts of Sweden are sparsely populated, and the 
domestic consumption of wood, in these regions, is therefore much 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 27 

smaller than in other parts of Sweden. Consequently the northern 
Baltic coniferous region in Sweden must have large quantities of 
wood available for export, and the ports in Norrland north of the 
mouth of the Dal River exported before the war about 75 per cent of 
the total quantity of lumber shipped from Sweden. Whatever hap- 
pens in the line of agricultural development in the rest of Sweden, 
Norrland will always oe primarily a timber-producing section. 

The birch-forest region is found on the slopes of the mountains, 
along the Norwegian border. A few other broad-leafed species grow 
in these regions, but their importance is very small outside of fur- 
nishing fuel for local use. The growth of the trees in the mountain- 
ous regions is scrubby, and these regions are of no importance to the 
logging operations, because the stands are scattered and the logging 
facilities are usually unsatisfactory. Birch does not play an impor- 
tant part in the lumber-export industry of northern Sweden and con- 
sequently will not be considered in this report. 

Below the bkch re^on the coniferous species grow over almost all 
the rest of the north Baltic coniferous region, the only interruptions 
being swamps, cultivated areas, and inland water. The cultivated 
areas are not very large in this part of Sweden, and there are also 
comparatively few lakes. 

There are only two species of coniferous trees; namely, pine (Pinus 
sylvestris) and spruce (Picea excelsa). 

Pine and spruce are found in both clear and mixed stands. In 
some regions considerable birch is found mixed with pine and spruce. 
Clear stands of spruce are found principally on calcareous soil in the 
Province of Jemtland, certain sections of Vesternorrland and Vester- 
botten, and some coastal districts. The districts adjacent to the 
Angermann River have extensive clear spruce stands. In the interior 
southern parts of Norrland there are also extensive clear stands of 
spruce. Pine is the predominant species all over these regions ex- 
cept in the districts mentioned. 

Of broad-leafed species there are aspen {Populus tremula), alder 
{Alnus incana and Alnus glutinosa), basswood (Tilia euroyxa), maple 
{Acer platanoides) , and a few other species. These species, however, 
are of no importance and are seldom found except scattered among 
the coniferous stands. Occasionally some small broad-leafed stands 
may be found along the rivers. 

SOUTH BALTIC CONIFEROUS REGION. 

Except on small areas of State-owned forest lands, there are prac- 
tically no virgin forests left in the south Baltic coniferous region. 
The forests are all adj acent to the most densely populated sections of 
the country and have been exploited for hundreds of years. 

Besides pme and spruce, there are small stands of oak (Quercus 
rohur) , but these stands are so small that they are not even sufficient 
to cover the local demand. 

Other broad-leafed species are ash {Fraxinus excelsior) and elm 
{Zllmus montana), besides birch and the broad-leafed species growing 
in the north Baltic coniferous region. 

CENTRAL EUROPEAN BEECH REGION. 

The Swedish forests in the central European beech region are to a 
large extent planted. Beech {Fagus sylvatica) and oak constitute the 



28 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

principal species of broad-leafed trees in this region, but the stands 
are not very important. Some limited stands of pine and spruce are 
also found, the spruce being planted. The forests in the Central 
European beech region and the south Baltic coniferous region were 
first exploited for exports of forest products during the Middle Ages. 
At that time the forests in western continental Europe had been 
badly cut out and these countries had to obtain their supply of 
lumber and timber from other parts of Europe. The forests in 
southern and central Sweden were extensively cut to furnish firewood, 
ship timber, and lumber. Considerable quantities of oak were cut, 
especially in the coastal regions. Large areas also were burned over, 
and to-day these areas are still to a large extent bare of forests. 

With the growing population in southern and central Sweden, the 
capacity of these regions to supply forest products for export dimin- 
ished and they now consume locally the largest part of their pro- 
duction of wood, although they probably produce larger quantities 
of wood than the north Baltic coniferous region. 

To the lumber export trade, the north Baltic coniferous region is 
therefore of principal interest, and it will be given special attention 
in this report. 

SPECIES. 



Pine (Pinus sylvestris) ^ grows best on dry, sandy soil and is found 
up to an altitude of 1,300 feet in the northern part of Sweden. The 
timber Imiit is increased to about 2,950 feet at 62° north latitude. 
Another species of pine (Pinus montana uncinata) grows only in the 
southeastern coastal regions and is of little importance to the lumber 
industry. 

Of Pinus sylvestris there are two varieties, Pinus sylvestris lajjpon,- 
ica and Pinus sylvestris septentrionalis. For practical purposes it 
may be said that the lapponica variety grows in the north Baltic 
coniferous region and the septentrionalis variety is found in the 
south Baltic coniferous region. The principal distinguishuig quali- 
ties of these two varieties are as follows: 

Lapponica variety. — The needles are short and wide; they average 
in length, ^ to Iff inches. The shape of the crown is cylindrical 
and the branches are short. The color of the bark is yellowish red 
and it is thinner than that of the septentrionalis variety. The wood 
is dense and of a reddish color, showing a larger percentage of heart 
than is possessed by the septentrionalis variety. It is supposed that 
the lapponica variety has come in from eastern Europe. The differ- 
ence m the quality of the wood between these two varieties may be 
attributed to the location and the climate. 

Septentrionalis variety. — The needles are l^J to 2ff niches long and 
are narrow. The shape of the crown is pyramidical. The bark is 
darker and thicker than that of the pme growing in the north Baltic 
coniferous region. This variety of pme probably came into Sweden 
from central Europe, because it shows many of the qualities of the 
pine m those regions. 

The average height of the pine tree in different parts of Sweden is 
as follows: Norrbotten, 56 to 59 feet; Norrland, 59 to 66 feet; central 

1 North European pine is called redwood in the European markets. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 8.— CROSS SECTION OF SWEDISH SPRUCE. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 29 

aiid southern Sweden, 66 feet. The maximum height of any pine 
tree recorded m Sweden is 108 feet. 

The pine grows most rapidly in height durmg the period from 20 
to 50 years of age. At the age of 120 to 150 years the growth in 
iieight stops. Pine trees may occasionally be found from 300 to 500 
years old, but this is very miusual. Trees more than 36 inches m 
diameter at breast height are seldom or never seen. 

The following figures compiled by Forester Ortenblad, of the 
Swedish Forest Service, show the diameter at breast height of pme 
70 years old in the different parts of Norrland and Dalecarlia: Vester- 
botten, 7|^ inches; Jemtland, 8|-| inches; Vesternorrland, 8-^ inches; 
Gevleborg, 8^ mches; Kopparberg, 7f^ inches. In southern Sweden 
the growth of the trees is much quicker. At the age of 140 to 200 
years pine has a diameter at breast height of approximately 12^ 
inches. 

The average age of maturity of pine stands (based on the age at 
which suitable saw-log dimensions can be obtained) is as follows in 
different parts of the coimtry: Southern Sweden, 80 to 90 years; 
central Sweden and southern Norrland, 90 to 120 years; central Norr- 
land and northern Norrland, 120 to 180 years. 

The pine has a tap-root system that extends far down into the 
ground and makes the tree resistant to wind and fire. The stands are 
not so dense as those of the forests commonly seen in the United 
States, and in open stands the branches are heavier and more num- 
erous than in denser stands. The pine growing near the coast and 
in the higher altitudes is lower and more branched. 

The taper of the pine may be 1 inch in 10 feet in the best stands, 
but in the moimtainous districts and near the coast the taper is 
greater. 

The taper of pine and spruce is given as follows, covering stands in 
central Sweden and southern Norrland: Average stand — 1 inch in 
8 feet for first 22 feet from ground, then 1 inch in 6 feet ; average good 
stand — 1 inch in 10 feet for fu-st 26 feet from groimd, then 1 inch in 
8 feet; poor stands (coast and mountain pine and spruce) — 1 inch in 
6 feet for first 18 feet from ground, J^hen 1 inch in 4 feet. 

The thickness of the bark in trees of different diameters in central 
Sweden is as follows: 



Diameter at 4J feet 


Tnickness 


from ground. 


of bark. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


m 


fi 


lf|to3|f 


Wi 


3fS to 5U 


u 


5||to7|| 


H 


7|ito9|t 


if 


915 to UH 


!! 


n||tol3|$ 


ST 


1311 to 15|| 


5T 


15ji to 17|| 


14 


HH to 19|| 


HI 


19M up. 


n\ 



On an average the bark constitutes from 6 to 12 per cent of the 
cubical contents of the tree, but it may represent as much as 22 per 
cent. 



30 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The pine in Sweden is generally of a very dense and solid growth ; 
the farther north the tree the more close-grained is the wood. In 
the extreme north the growth may be so dense that the annual rings 
can not be seen by the naked eye. On an average, the growth in 
Norrland may show from 12 to 15 rings per inch. The climate in 
southern Sweden is mild and the growth is much quicker. Large 
stands are found on watery land, where the growth of the pine is very 
similar to its growth in southeastern Finland. The texture is spongy. 
The pine in southern Sweden may have a growth of 6 to 8 annual 
rings per inch. Pine in northern Sweden shows a large percentage 
of heart and is of a reddish color; but the percentage of sapwood 
increases the farther south the tree grows. In southern Sweden the 
wood is almost white. 

Pine contains from 2.5 to 5 per cent of resin in the sapwood and 
from 11 to 23 per cent of resin in the heartwood. The weight of pine, 
air dry, is given as 36 pounds to the cubic foot by Prof. Wijkander. 
The weight of a cubic foot of pine is estimated at 51.7 pounds, green, 
and at 31.9 pounds, absolutely dry. The shipping weight is com- 
puted at 46.7 pounds per cubic foot in the general trade. 

Pine is essentially a construction material of excellent qualities. 
Practically the only defect is the knots, but these, though numerous, 
are usually small, solid, and firmly incased in the wood. Pine is not 
so hard as Douglas fir and southern yellow pine in the United States, 
but is considerably harder than the pine in central Europe. It is 
easily worked with tools and does not warp or check. On account 
of the resin cont-^nt pine has very good lasting qualities. This wood is 
not well adapted for interior finish, partly because it does not show 
any decorative grain, and the knots make painting necessary when the 
wood is used for such purposes. Nevertheless, it is extensively used 
for joinery, but spruce is believed to be more suitable, though it has 
some of the same defects. The pine in Sweden is supposed to be less 
knotty than the pine in Norway and Finland, but otherwise there is 
very little difference in the quality of the wood in the three countries. 
The distinction made in the lumber-export trade between pine from 
Norway, Finland, and Sweden is due largely to differences in manu- 
facturing and grading and not to differences in quality. 

The pine in Sweden may be compared with the Norway pine 
{Pinus resinosa) of the Lake regions of the United States, but it is 
believed that Swedish pine has superior qualities as a construction 
wood because it is more close-grained. 

The best stands of pine are found in the interior districts of central 
and southern Norrland and of Dalecarlia. 

Particularly in Norrland, considerable quantities of dead pine tim- 
ber are found. These trees have only the heartwood left, the sap- 
wood having decayed. They have been standing for centuries; some 
have been seen in Norrland bearing the inscription of the year 1704. 
The supply is rapidly being cut out in accordance with the accepted 
principles of rational cutting. Probably in 10 years this class of 
timber will not be found m Sweden in large quantities. This 
timber is called "torrac" in the international lumber trade. The 
lumber sawn from these trees has special lasting qualities and is there- 
fore used extensively for construction purposes such as docks, etc. 
Its quality is very poor, and it is classified as cull lumber. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 31 



Spruce (Picea excelsa),^ it is beKeved, came into Sweden from eastern 
Europe. The best spruce stands are found on calcareous soil, and this 
species prefers moisture, but can not endure the heat as well as the 
pine and is more exacting in its requirements regarding climate and soil. 

There is only one native species of spruce in Sweden; a great 
many foreign species of spruce have been planted, but they do not 
play any important part in the lumber-export industry. 

The average height of spruce at the ages of 100 and 200 years in 
the different parts of Norrland and Dalecarlia is seen from the fol- 
lowing table: 



Districts. 


100 years. 


200 years. 


Districts. 


100 years. 


200 years. 


Norrbotten 


Ft. In. 
46 10 
65 9 
55 9 


Ft. In. 
60 
68 6 
68 6 


Vesternorrland 


Ft. In. 

57 9 
60 

58 


Ft. In. 
71 




Gevleborg 


75 6 


Jemtland 


Kopparberg 


72 









The maximum height of spruce in the various parts of Norrland 
is as follows: Gevleborg, 102 feet 6 inches; Vesternorrland, 95 feet; 
Jemtland, 92 feet; Norrbotten, 85 feet. 

The diameter of spruce at breast height at the age of 80 years is 
as follows in the different districts of Norrland and Dalecarlia, accord- 
ing to Forester Ortenblad: Vesterbotten, 6|f inches; Jemtland, 7f^ 
inches; Vesternorrland, 7|^ inches; Gevelborg, 8|f inches; Koppar- 
berg, 8|^ inches. The average for Norrland at different ages is as 
follows: 30 years. Iff inches; 40 years, 2|f inches; 50 years, 3^ 
inches; 60 years, 4|f inches; 70 years, 5|f inches; 80 years, 6|^ inches; 
90 years, 7|^ inches; 100 years, 8|-| inches; 110 years, 8|-| inches; 120 
years, 9|^ inches; 130 years, 9|f inches; 140 years, 10|^ inches; 150 
years, 10|f inches. 

The growth of the spruce in southern Sweden is more rapid. The 
age of maturity of the spruce trees (based on the age when the tree 
yields suitable dimensions for saw logs) is somewhat earlier than that 
of pine. Spruce is often liable to decay, and it has been necessary 
in many parts of the country to cut spruce before the age of 80 years, 
when this rot generally begins. 

The root system does not extend very deeply into the ground and 
is partly exposed above ground- Spruce is therefore liable to suffer 
from winds and ferest fires. 

The best stands of spruce are found in central Norrland. In dense 
stands the bole is perfectly straight, and there are fewer branches than 
when the spruce grows in the mountainous districts and near the coast. 
The bark is smooth and is of a dark grayish color. 



* North European spruce is called whitewood in the European markets. 



32 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The thickness of the bark in trees of different diameters is shown 
in the following table: 



Diameter at 4} feet 


Thickness 


from ground. 


of bark. 


iTiches. 


Inches. 


Ifl 


♦ 


IMto 3|S 


A 


3||to 5|| 


ii 


5||to 7|i 


a 


7|fto 9U 


a 


%i to IIH 


u 


ll|f to 13|f 


a 


13|f to 15if 


M 


1511 to 17JI 


11 


17JI to 19iJ 


5T 



The needles are twenty-five sixty-fourths to fifty sixty-fourths 
inch long, and are dark green. The wood is white and of a solid 
and dense growth. vSpruce has more knots than pine, but the knots 
are smaller and are firmly incased in the wood. Their light grayish 
color is not conspicuous. The wood contains only a very small 
percentage of resin, and is therefore liable to decay. The weight 
is given by Prof. Wijkander as 30 pounds per cubic foot, air-dry, 
while 48.4 pounds and 27.5 pounds are given by scientists as the 
weight of spruce, green and absolutely dry, respectively. The rail- 
roads figure the weight of spruce at 46.7 pounds per cubic foot, or 
the same as pine, but the spruce is actually lighter. Spruce bark 
contams from 5 to 18 per cent of tannic acid. The fibers are longer, 
but not so strong as the fibers of pine. The high percentage of cellu- 
lose in this wood and the small percentage of resin make it an ideal 
raw material for pulp, and spruce pulp is very soft and elastic. 

The physical properties of spruce (breaking strength, hardness, 
etc.) are not so good as those of pine, and it is, therefore, not so adapt- 
able for ordinary construction purposes. Its inferiority in lasting 
qualities restricts the use of this wood to purposes where it is not 
exposed to the elements. It is easily worked with tools, does not 
warp or check, and has many desirable qualities for interior finish 
and joinery. It has the same defects, however, as pine, such as 
knots and lack of decorative grain, and it is therefore generally 
painted when used for interior finish. It is an ideal shook material 
for boxes to be used as food containers, because the wood has neither 
taste nor smell. 

The spruce in Sweden has a great many of the same qualities as 
the Sitka spruce on the Pacific Coast of the United States, but the 
small percentage of clears and the limited dimensions obtainable 
make the Swedish wood less useful than the American. 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PINE AND SPRUCE. 

The testing of the physical properties of wood has not been devel- 
oped to such an extent in Europe as it has in the United States. 
In northern Europe few tests have been made, and little attention is 
paid to this important question. 

A test of Swedish pine made in 1897 by Prof. Aug. Wijkander, in 
Goteborg, has been submitted to the Forest Products Laboratory at 
Madison, Wis., with a view to obtaining a comparative statement 
of the physical properties of Swedish and American pines. The 
accompanying table, prepared by the Forest Service, gives data for 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 'S3 

comparing various American coniferous species with Swedish pine 
and spruce. Sources of the data and explanations of tests are 
indicated. The values for air-dry material of the American species 
are inserted for comparison with those of the Swedish species, for 
which values based on tests of green material are not available. 
Intercomparisons of American species should be based principally 
on the values for green material. 

In making comparisons from this table it should be remembered 
that the material of any species is variable and that the species 
averaging highest will yield some material poorer than the average 
of a species that appears to be considerably inferior. Conversely, 
the species averaging lowest in a property will furnish some material 
better in that property than the average and much better than the 
poorer material of a species that is, in general, much superior. Conse- 
quently, too much importance should not be attached to relatively 
small differences shown by the data. 

The practical importance of this table must necessarily be limited, 
as it must be remembered that these tests were based on clear wood 
and that only a very small percentage of such clear stock is found in 
Sweden. The tests seem to indicate that clear Swedish pine and 
spruce in most respects have mechanical properties only slightly 
inferior to those of the best American coniferous woods. 

Comparison op Various American Coniferous Species with Swedish Pine 
AND Spruce. Results of Tests on Small Clear Specimens." 



Species. 6 



Common names. 



Botanical names. 



Number 
of trees 
repre- 
sented 
in tests. 



Seasoning 

condition 

(see notes c 

and d.) 



Weight 

per cubic 

foot. 



SWEDISH SPECIES, c 



Pine... 

Spruce 

AMERICAN SPECIES.<i 

Douglas fir 



Pinus sylvestris. 
Piceaexcelsa 



Air dry . 
do.. 



Western hemlock 

Western larch 

Long-leaf pine 

Short-leaf pine 

Sugar pine 

Western white pine. . 
Western yellow pine. 

White pine 

Red spruce 

Wliite spruce 

Sitka spruce 



Pseudotsuga taxifolia. 
Tsuga heterophylla. . . 

Larix occidentalis 

Pinus palustris 

Pinus ecliinata 

Pinus lambertiana. . . 

Pinus monticola 

Pinus ponderosa 

Pinus strobus 

Picea rubens ....'..... 
Picea canadensis 

Picea sitchensis 



f Green... 
\Air dry. 
/Green. . . 
\Air dry. 
JGreen. . . 
\Air dry. 
f Green... 
\Air dry. 
|Green... 
\Air dry. 
JGreen... 
1 Air dry . 
ifirreen... 
^ir dry. 
|Green... 
\Air dry. 
/Green. . . 
\AiT dry. 
/Green. . 
\Air dry. 
/Green... 
1 Air dry. 



Pounds. 
36 
30 

38 
34 
40 
29 
46 
56 
48 
42 
50 
38 
51 
26 
35 
27 
46 
26 
37 
25 
32 
28 
32 
27 



a Compiled by Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Novem- 
jer, 1919. 

6 Nomenclature of the American species follows United States Forest Service Bulletin 17, Check List of 
the Forest Service Trees of the United States. 

c From Untersuchung der Festigkeits-Eigenschaften Schwedischer Holzarten by Aug. Wijkander. 
Tests made on air-dry material at about 12.4 per cent moisture. Bending specimens approximately 4 by 
4 by 64 inches (10 by 10 cm. by 1.6 m,) on 60-inch (1.5 m.) span. Compression-parallel-to-grain specimens 
4 by 4 by 6 inches. 

d From tests by United States Forest Service. " Green " means thoroughly green and unaffected by any 
dry ng. Value for "Air dry " obtained by adjusting to 12 per cent moisture results of tests made oh ma- 
teri.ilat 6 to 17 per cent moisture. Bending specimens 2 by 2 by 30 inches on 28-ineh span. Others 2 by 
2 inrhes by different lengths. Moisture per cents referred to in notes c and d are based on the oven-dry 
weight of the wood. 

2092°— 21 3 



34 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



Comparison of Various American Coniferous Species With Swedish Pine 
AND Spruce. Results op Tests on Small Clear Specimens — Continued. 



Species — Common names. 



SWEDISH SPECIES.i 



Pine 

Spruce 

AMERICAN SPECTES.6 

Douglas flr 



f Green... 
\Air dry. 
fGreen... 
\Airdry. 
fGreen... 
I Air dry. 

Long-leaf pine greeriy 



Western hemlock . 
Western larch 



Seasoning 
condition. 



Air dry. 



Short-leaf pine 

Sugar pine 

Western white pine 

Western yellow pine 

White pine 

Red and white spruce. . . 
Sitka spruce 



fGreen. 
\Airdry. 
fGreen... 
\ Air dry. 
fGreen... 
\ Air dry. 
/Green... 
I Air dry. 
fGreen... 
\Air dry. 
fGreen... 
\ Air dry. 
/Green... 
\Air dry. 



Shrinkage to oven-dry 
condition: Per cent of 
dimensions when green. 



In 
volume. 



11.7 

'ii.'g' 



13.2 
12.2' 



12.6 

"7." 8 



11.3 

'io."6 



12.4 

'ii.'i 



Radial. 



5.0 

'i'.h' 



Tangen- 
tial. 



4.2 

'h'.i' 



5.1 
'2.'9" 



4.1 
'3.'9' 



2.2 

's.'e" 

'4."3' 



8.1 
'7.'6' 
'8.'2 
"b'.h' 
'V.i 
'h'.i 
'h'.9 
'7.2 
'7."2 



Static bending. 



Fiber 

stress at 
elastic 
limit. 



Lfis.per 
sq. in. 



4,860 
7,840 
3,800 
6,730 
4,570 
7,540 
5,370 
9,360 
4,520 
8,760 
3,390 
5,820 
3,370 
6,020 
3,080 
6,380 
3,320 
5,680 
3,420 
7,150 
3,320 
6,210 



Modu- 
lus of 
rupture. 



Lbs. per 
■ sq. in. 
9,450 
8,600 

7,650 

11, 220 
6,340 

10,060 
7,440 

11,570 
8,600 

13,940 
7, 960 

13, 390 
5,080 
7,910 
5,220 
8,660 
5,200 
9,280 
4,930 
7,990 
5,480 

10,310 
5,480 
9,210 



Modu- 
lus of 
elas- 
ticity. 



Work to 
maxi- 
mum 
load. 



1, 000 lbs. \ Inch lbs. 
ptrsq.in. percu.in, 

1,595 

1,510 5.8 



1,540 
1,815 
1,250 
1,520 
1,340 
1,680 
1,595 
1,915 
1,450 
1,925 

940 
1,165 
1,170 
1,450 
1,015 
1,295 

960 
1,225 
1,370 
1,510 
1,225 
1,440 



7.8 
6.1 
6.3 
7.1 
8.0 
7.8 
10.2 
8.7 
9.7 
5.4 
5.4 
5.0 
6.8 
5.1 
6.2 
5.2 
5.8 
5.6 
8.8 
6.2 

8. a 



Species — Common names. 



SWEDISH SPECIES.o 

Pine 

Spruce 

AMERICAN SPECIES. 6 

Douglas fir 



Western hemlock 

Western larch 

Long-leaf pine 

Short-leaf pine. .' 

Sugar pine .* 

Western white pine 

Western yellow pine 

White pine 

Red and white spruce 

Sitka spruce 



Impact 
bending, c 



Seasoning 
condition. 



Air dry . 
...do.... 



fGreen... 
\Air dry. 
(Green.. 
\ Air dry. 
Green.. 
,Air dry. 
/Green.. 
\Air dry. 
fGreen.. 
\Air dry. 
/Green.. 
\Air dry. 
fGreen.. 
\Air dry. 
(Green!. 
\Air dry. 
/Green., 
t Air dry. 
(Green.. 
\Airdry. 
/Green.. 
1 Air dry. 



Drop to 

cause 

complete 

failure. 



Inches. 



Maximum 
crushing 
strength 
in com- 
pression 
parallel 
to grain. 



Pounds 

per sq.in. 

5,900 

5,250 

3,860 
6,940 
3,0S0 
6,090 
3,780 
7,340 
4,360 
8,440 
3,810 
7,830 
2,530 
4, 660 
2,540 
5,100 
2, 460 
5, 440 
2,440 
4,750 
2,700 
5, 940 
2, 0.SO 
5,040 



Fiber 
stress at 
elastic 
limit in 
compres- 
sion per- 
pendic- 
ular to 
grain. 



Pounds 
per sq. in. 



Shear 
parallel 
to grain. 



520 
870 
340 
620 
560 

1, ino 
590 

1,420 
4S0 

1,190 
350 
630 
280 
560 
340 
700 
260 
550 
330 
670 
320 
660 



1,220 
1,140 

890 

1,120 

820 

1,060 

920 

1,390 

1,060 

1,460 

890 

1,370 

680 

980 

620 

840 

6S0 

1,100 

650 

890 

790 

1,140 

770 

1, l.'iO 



Hardness.d 



End 
grain. 



Pounds. 



490 
730 
520 
810 
470 
1,130 
530 
990 
490 
7S0 
320 
530 
300 
460 
310 
560 
310 
4.50 
410 
630 
420 
710 



Side 
grain. 



Pounds. 



460 
650 
420 
530 
450 
770 
580 
890 
560 
770 
310 
400 
300 
400 
320 
450 
290 
370 
380 
490 
340 
460 



a From Tntersuchung dcr Festigkeits-Eigenschiften Schwedisoh?r Holzarten by Aug. Wijkander. 
Tests made on air-dry material nt about 12.4 per cent moisture. Bending specimens approximately 4 by 
4 by 64 inches (10 by 10 cm. by 1.6 m.) on 60-inch (1.5 m.) span. Compression-parallel-to-grain specimens 
4 by 4 by 6 inches. 

b.From tests by United States Forest Service. "Green" means thoroughly green and unaffected by any 
drying. Value for "Air dry" obtained by adjusting to 12 per cent moisture results of tosts made on ma- 
terial at 6 to 17 per cent moisture. Bending specimens 2 by 2 by 30 inches on 28-inch span. Others 2 by 
2 inches by different lengths. Moisture per cents referred to in notes a. and b are based on the oven-dry 
weight of the wood. 

c 50-pound hammer dropped from increasing heights, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, etc., inches until com- 
plete failure occurs. 

d Load required to embed a 0.444-inch steel ballto one-half its diameter. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 35 
LARCH — HARDWOODS. 

Larch {Larix europa and Larix sihirica) has been planted in 
small stands in Sweden and may attain some importance if planting 
is conducted on a big scale. It is especially adaT)ted to shipbuilding 
material and has other desirable qualities. The present stands, 
however, are so small that they can not be given any consideration. 

It is believed that none of the broad-leafed species in Sweden 
will attain any importance in the lumber-export trade, and they will 
not be treated in this report. Birch is the only hardwood of any 
consequence, and this species is only used locally in Sweden as a 
general-utility wood and also for fuel purposes. It is not cut into 
lumber for export. The lumber produced from the Swedish broad- 
leafed species is inferior in quality to the hardwoods imported from 
abroad. 

STANDS OF TIMBER. 

Although the Swedish authorities have investigated the forest 
resources of their country to a greater extent than has been the case 
in Finland and Norway, the data with regard to the stands and 
annual increment are not complete. Estimates of the stands have 
been made from time to time, but they are not supposed to be very 
rehable, and they vary from 37,100,000,000 cubic feet to 46,000,- 
000,000 cubic feet. 

A few years ago the Province of Vermland was made the subject 
of a very close investigation, with a view to ascertaining whether a 
similar investigation could be effected for the whole country. The 
Swedish Government now plans to carry out such an investigation 
sometime in the future, covering all Swedish forests, because the 
lack of definite information has hampered the forest experts in 
deciding what steps are necessary to operate the forests efficiently. 

It may be of interest to give an abstract of the results of the investi- 
gation of the Province of Vermland. The area investigated was 
approximately 4,775,000 acres, in sections about 35 feet wide, with 
a distance of 1| to 3 miles between sections, extending diagonally 
through the Province. The total stand of timber in this Province 
was found to be about 3,400,000,000 cubic feet. Spruce constituted 
48.43 per cent, pine 37.10 per cent, and other species, both conifer- 
ous and broad-leafed, 14.47 per cent. 

The stands according to diameter at 25^ inches from the ground 
were as follows : 

Per cent. 

Trees having a diameter not exceeding l|f inches 3. 95 

Trees having a diameter of Iff to 3f f inches 12. 15 

Trees having a diameter of 3|f to 5|| inches 23. 40 

Trees having a diameter of 5|| to 7|| inches 25. 25 

Trees ha^'ing a diameter of 7|f to 9|| inches 17. 95 

Trees having a diameter of 9|| to ll|f inches 9. 98 

Trees ha\ing a diameter of ll|f to 13|f inches 4. 36 

Trees ha\ing a diameter of 13|-J to 15|f inches 1. 83 

Trees having a diameter of ] 5|| to 17|| inches 74 

Trees ha\ing a diameter of 17^f to 19|| inches 24 

Trees having a diameter of 19|| inches and up 15 

100. 00 



36 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



SWEDEN 

(SVERIGE) 

PRODUCTIVE FOREST AREAS 
BY PROVINCES 

SMO-YINO 
PUBLIC AND PRIVATE FORESTS 



PRIVATE FO'IKT 
PUBLIC FOREST 




OJSTRtCr Of STOCKHOLM 



14 COTEBOfiG »N0 BOHUS 

li ALVSSOUa 

16 SKAHABORG 

17 V*RMLANO 

18 OBEBffO 

!0 K0PPARBE»G 

21 GAVLlBOBG 

22 VASTERNORRUV 

23 jAMTLAND 

24 VASTCBBOTT' 

25 NORRBOnCN 



o/^f&rfpt ^na Dom^atfc Comm^rt 



Fig. 9. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 37 

. % 

Tlie stands divided according to age showed the following results : 



Per cent. 

Less than 20 years 4. 56 

20 to 39 years 23. 83 

40 to 59 years 29. 18 

60 to 79 years 18. 90 

80 to 99 years 10. 60 



Per cent. 

100 to 119 years 5. 88 

120 years and up 7. 05 



100. 00 



The stands per acre of the productive forests for the whole Province 
were given as 2,771 cubic feet and the total increment as 32.9 cubic 
feet per acre. The committee effecting this investigation contended 
that if the forests in Vermland were more efficiently managed, they 
could easily yield 57 cubic feet per acre annually. 

In the forests of Norrbotten and Vesterbotten, an investigation 
was made on an extensive property of forest lands of pine and spruce. 
The age of maturity for cutting was given as 140 years. These 
stands showed a large percentage of trees damaged by decay, even 
up to 11 per cent in some sections. The average stand per acre was 
given as 616 cubic feet and this figure may be considered fairly repre- 
sentative for these districts. 

One of the best stands in Sweden is found in southern Norrland at 
Axmark, where there are 120-year-old stands of mixed pine and spruce. 
The average height of the pine is 90 feet and of spruce 69 feet. 
The stand per acre is given as approximately 11,200 cubic feet, but 
this is exceptional. 

The best stand in Sweden is found in the forest of Jonaker, south 
of Stockholm. The stand consists of mixed pine and spruce and it 
is claimed that this mixed stand is the finest of its kind in Europe. 

The Government has an experiment area in these forests, consist- 
ing of pine and spruce stands 150 years old, which shows 716 trees 
per acre and a stand of 21,180 cubic feet per acre. This area, 
however, is very small, but the statement is given here to show what 
stands may be obtained in Sweden. Tlie average height of the 
trees in this forest is 97 feet, and the diameter 11^ inches at breast 
height. 

An experiment area in central Norrbotten showed the following 
results : 



Age of stand. 



Average 
height. 



Stand 
per acre. 



Average 

annual 

increment. 



40 years. 
90 years. 
150 years 



Feet. 



19* 
4U 
52i 



Cubic feet. 

529 

1,814 

2,000 



Cubic feet. 
18.1 
27.0 
25.9 



38 SWEDISH LUMBER li^DUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



The following table gives an approximate estimate of the average 
annual increment and the stand per acre in the various sections of 
the country : 



Districts. 


stand per acre. 


Annual incre- 
ment per acre. 


North of 64° north latitude: 

Coastal district 


Cubic feet. 
858 to 929.5 
429 to 715 
• 715 to 929.5 
786. 5 to 1,144 
858 to 1,287 


Cuhicfeet. 
14. 3 to 17. 9 


Interior district 


7. 2 to 10.7 


62° to 64° . . 


21.5 


60° to 62° 


28.6 


South of 60° 


28. 6 to 42. 9 








Average Sweden . 


786. 5 to 929. 5 


21.5 to 28.6 








OWNERSHIP. 







According to the statistics (1915) of the Swedish Forest Sei*vice, 
the forests of Sweden are divided as follows in regard to ownership: 
Pubhc forests, partly owned by the State, 12,900,000 acres (23.3 per 
cent); privately owTied forests, 42,400,000 acres (76.7 per cent); 
total productive forest land, 55,300,000 acres.^ 

The accompanying table shows the area in 1915 of public and 
private forest land, productive and unproductive, in the different 
Provinces of the country, according to the statistics of the Swedish 
Forest Service. 



3 The statistics published by the Swedish Forest Service in regard to the productive forest area and the 
figures given in the Swedish Statistical Yearbook do not agree. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 39 



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40 SWEDISH LUMBER li^DUSTRY AXD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



PRH-ATE FORESTS. 



The private forests are in the hands of peasant landoxmers and 
other individuals, and large areas are o\sTied by wood-using industries 
such as pulp and paper mills, sa^^^nills, etc. It is estimated that 
one-third oi the privately owned forest land in Sweden is in the 
hands of wood-using industries and about two-thirds is in the hands 
of farmers and other individual ©"^Tiers. In the districts of Norrland 
and Dalecarha 37 to 38 per cent is owned by wood-using industries 
and 62 to 63 per cent by individuals. In southern Sweden the 
proportion of forest lands in the hands of the wood-using industries 
IS somewhat smaller. Thus individual owners possess by far the 
largest areas of forest lands in Sweden. 

In the Provinces of Norrbotten, Vesterbotten, part of the Province 
of Kopparberg, and the Islands of Gotland and Oland, the forests 
have been managed for years according to regulations laid do\vn in 
special laws covering these territories, and the forests are fairly, well 
conserved on this account. In the other sections of the country, 
particularly in southern Sweden and in the coastal districts, the 
forests have been cut for decades in excess of the annual growth. 
This refers mainl}' to the forests in the hands of smaller holders. 

There are forests in Sweden belonging to large estates, which have 
been managed scientifically for more than a century, and these 
forests usually show excellent stands. 

During the beg innin g and middle of the last century, the Govern- 
ment allotted forest lands to the settlers in northern Sweden, and 
this allotment was carried on until recent decades. GeneraUy these 
farmers obtained larger forest areas than they required to provide 
for their own needs. Consequently, they have always had consider- 
able timber for sale. Few of these farmers have taken any interest 
in the rational management of the forest lands; they have merely 
disposed of the timber in their forests to wood-using industries. It 
is only natural that these forests have been badly cut out in the 
districts where the laws have not prevented reckless cutting. The 
wood-using industries in northern Sweden possess large timber 
holdings, and these companies are now carefully managing the 
forests, although the great majority of them drained the forests to 
excess in the past. 

Several sawmill companies in Sweden possess 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 
acres of forest lands, which in many cases were acquired decades 
ago at very low prices. Many of these sawmills, which were among 
the pioneers in northern Sweden, received liberal support from the 
Government in the way of concessions permitting them to cut a 
certain number of trees in the State forests each year at a certain 
low price per tree. Many of these concessions were in effect up to 
1918, but they expired in that year and were not renewed by the 
Government. 

Besides possessing large areas of forest lands, these wood-using 
industries frequently own extensive farms and other aOTicultural 
properties also, which often were included in the forest lands pur- 
chased in the past. These conditions obtain in northern Sweden 
and closely resemble those prevailing in Finland. The same problem 
has come up in Sweden in regard to the danger of having the number 
of independent landowners decrease, and the Swedish Government 
took steps in 1906 to prevent the wood-using industries from pur- 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Special Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 41 

chasing land in the Provinces of Vesternorrland, Jemtland, Vester- 
botten, and Norrbotten, and in portions of the Provinces of Gevleborg 
and Kopparberg. 

There are, however, exceptions to these laws, and the wood-using 
industries may acquire lancl for the use of factories, yards, etc., and 
also forest lands that may not be deemed absolutely necessary for 
the use of the particular farm to which they belong. It has not 
been the intention of the Government, however, to prevent the 
wood-using industries from possessing a forest area adequate to 
safeguard the supply of raw material. In 1909 and 1912 strict laws 
were passed to the effect that the wood-using industries possessing 
agi-icultural properties must use them for agricultural purposes; also 
very strict laws were passed in regard to tenants. The law in 
regard to the compulsory cultivation of farm land in the hands of 
wood-using industries proved of inestimable value to the nation 
during the critical conditions of the war, when Sweden found itself 
able to produce a large percentage of the necessary food supplies. 
In northern Sweden the food conditions were much better during 
the war than in the south, because northern Sweden was able to 
produce adequate food supplies for its population, while the more 
densely populated districts in the south were not in so favorable a 
position. 

Generally speaking, the Swedish sawmills have not such extensive 
areas of forest lands as those in Finland. They are therefore de- 
pendent to a greater extent upon the purchase of logs and timber 
from outside sources. 

The private forests in Sweden have been severely drained in 
decades past, particularly in southern Sweden and the coastal 
regions. Not only has timber of large dimensions been cut, but 
saplings and immature growth have been recklessly exploited, 
especially by exporters of props. In many districts of Sweden 
dealers in props taking logging contracts for saplings and young 
stands are called ''county shavers" because they have virtually 
shaved off most of the trees in the stands from the surface, leaving 
only scrubby growth. This practice has been stopped by the recent 
stringent laws. 

The forests in the hands of the larger lumber and pulp companies 
have been severely cut at times, but these owners have generally 
given due consideration to reforestation problems, and the forests 
have been well managed. One company in the Province of Koppar- 
berg, which is said to be the oldest stock company in the world, 
has carried on logging operations in its own forests since the company 
was started about 1225, and this company to-day probably has a 
larger quantity of standing timber than it ever had before, in spite 
of the fact that it has been logging for 700 years. Other companies 
in Sweden have not been in continuous operation so long, but the 
majority of the sawmill companies have carried out a rational forest 
policy for some time. 

Previous to the war, considerable areas of forest lands were in 
the hands of foreigners, mainly Norwegians and English; but during 
the war the Swedes acquired a large percentage of these foreign- 
owned forests and practically speaking, the only foreign-owned 
forests in Sweden at the present time are limited areas in the hands 



42 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



SWEDEN 

(SVERIGE 

PUBLIC FOREST DISTRICTS 




%, ^roi^tgn <w^ OomcstK Camintixe 



Fig. 12. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 43 

of Non\^egians. On the other hand, it may be noticed that Swedish 
concerns own forest lands in Norway. This foreign ownership in 
both countries may be explained from the fact that certain rivers 
originate in one country and flow into the other, and it is therefore 
logical that the wood-using industries located on these floating 
rivers should acquire the forest lands adjacent to these water systems, 
which only with difficulty could be exploited by industries situated 
in other districts. It may therefore be said that the forests in Sweden 
are o\vned almost entirely by Swedes. 

PUBLIC FORESTS.* 

In Sweden the State has possessed forests for more than 700 
years, but these forests were, at that time, mainly the property of 
the King, and were used chiefly for hunting grounds. Later, in 
the sixteenth century, it was proclaimed that all lands not under 
cultivation, and not settled belonged to "God, the Swedish King, 
the Swedish Crown." 

The State forests were, at first, located mainly in southern Sweden, 
because these districts were first settled, and forests were more 
valuable in that part of the country than in the sparsely settled 
districts of the north. It was not until the nineteenth century, 
when the sawmill industry started in central Norrland, that the 
State took any interest in proclaiming the o^\^lership to the forests 
in this part of the country. 

An intelligent ex]3loitation policy in the State forests was not 
started until the beginning of the seventeenth century (1638), when 
the first rules were laid down in regard to forest management. At 
this time, the Swedish mining industry flourished and large quanti- 
ties of wood were cut for charcoal to be used in smelting the ore. 
Concessions were given on very liberal terms to mining companies 
to log timber in the State forests for the production of charcoal. 

At the beginning of the eighteenth century it was feared that the 
forest areas would be seriously decreased in the southern part of 
Sweden, and the Government started at this time energetically to 
reforest large areas of land close to the coast where the forests had 
been burned down and sand storms were prevalent. At the beginning 
of the nineteenth century a belief was prevalent in Europe that Gov- 
ernment forest exploitation was necessarily inefficient. This belief 
took a strong hold in Sweden, and the Government sold large areas 
of forest lands to private individuals at extremely low prices. About 
the middle of the nineteenth century the Government gave liberal 
concessions to sawmills, as was mentioned in the preceding section. 

It was not until about 1860 that the State realized the value of its 
forest domains. At this time the lumber-export trade was started 
on a large scale, with the consequent heavy increase in stumpage 
values. At that time the Government established the policy with 
regard to the management of its forests that it has since maintained. 
About 1875 the State took the first steps toward acquiring additional 
forest lands and since that time the area of the State forests has been 
increased, partly by purchases, partly by taking in other public 
forests, and partly by dividing large areas of forest lands in the 

* Unless otherwise specified, the statistical information is based on the Official Statistics of the Swedish 
Forest Service for 1915. 



44 SWEDISH LUMBER HSTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

northern part of the country between the State and the farmers. 
This last process even now is not complete. (See note to table 
below.) The area of State-owned forest land (including unproductive 
forests) was about 1,053,000 acres in 1870 and 14,984,000 acres in 
1915. 

On account of its imfortunate policy at the beginning of the last 
century the Government parted with valuable timberlands in south- 
ern Sweden and to-day by far the largest State-owned timberlands 
are situated in the extreme north of Sweden, and for the most part 
constitute the least desirable forest lands in the country. In southern 
Sweden the Goverimient possesses many small and scattered timber 
areas. The administration of these properties is difficult and expen- 
sive, and their exploitation can not be so efficient as in the north, 
where the State-owned forests constitute large unbroken areas. 

The public forest lands in Sweden may be divided into two cate- 
gories: (a) Forest lands owned by the State, the income of which is 
enjoyed by the Government alone; and (h) ecclesiastical forests and 
forests belonging to cities, counties, communes, and official insti- 
tutions, and to other official and semiofficial organizations. The 
State controls the cutting and to some extent the management of the 
forests in class (6). 

The following table shows for 1915 the area of State forest lands 
and of other public forest lands (productive and unproductive) in 
Sweden : 



Public forest lands. 


Productive. 


Un- 
productive. 


Cul- 
tivated. 


Total. 


State-owned 


A cres. 

9,143,000 

2,988,000 


Acres. 
5,737,000 
3, 514, 000 


Acres. 
104,000 


Acres. 
14,984,000 
6,502,000 


other 






Total 


12,131,000 


9,251,000 


104,000 


021, 486, 000 







a Tills total does not include 772,000 acres of productive forest and 10,110,000 acres of unproductive forest 
in northern Sweden that is still undivided between the State and the farmers. It does include 104,000 
acres of cultivated land in addition to the public forest lands considered in the table on page 39. 

The area of productive forests that l^id been made subject to con- 
cessions for sawmill companies aggregated 104,000 acres in 1915. 
These concessions expired in 1918, and this area is now entirely under 
the control of the Government. The forest area that the Govern- 
ment set aside in times past for the support of the Swedish mining 
industry amounts to 62,000 acres of productive forest land. Exten- 
sive areas in the Province of Jemtland (408,000 acres of productive 
forest land) have also been set aside by the Government for reindeer 
pastures. 

The ecclesiastical forests are scattered all over the country, with 
an area, in productive forest land, of approximately 677,000 acres. 
Many cities and towns in Sweden possess extensive areas of productive 
forests, which cover about 86,000 acres. For centuries a large num- 
ber of counties and commmies in Sweden have possessed productive 
forest lands (about 193,000 acres), which are operated for the benefit 
of the whole community. The remainder of the productive forests 
is in the hands of other official and semiofficial organizations, settle- 
ments, etc., and aggregates about 1,562,000 acres. 

Of the total area of productive forests in Sweden, not including the 
undivided area, the piil)lic forests thus constitute 22.2 per cent. Of 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



45 



the public forests, the State owns 69.7 per cent and the remainder, 
30.3 per cent, constitutes other pubHc forest lands. 

The area of the public productive forests in each Province in 1915 
is shown in the f ollowino: table : 



Provinces. 


State- 
owned 
forests. 


Other 
public 
forests. 


Total 
public 
forests. 


Provinces. 


State- 
owned 
forests. 


Other 
public 
forests. 


Total 
public 
forests. 


Norrbotten 


A cres. 

4, 63.5, 7.5R 

2, 139, 230 

3.33,010 

262, 057 

177, S43 

692,438 

67, 662 

101, 199 

56,567 

15, 792 

23,838 

29,457 

78, 779 

24,935 


A crcs. 

1,024,719 

99, 176 

63, 375 

501, 224 

148, 027 

4.54, 558 

77, 336 

45, 586 

61,937 

70, 326 

36, 314 

73,513 

79, 599 

13,455 


' Acres. 

5, 660, 475 

2,238,406 
396, 385 
763, 281 
325, 870 

1, 146, 996 
144,998 
146, 785 
118,504 
86,118 
60, 152 
102,970 
158, 378 
38,390 


Kalmar . . 


Acres. 

122, 198 
60, 560 
67,294 
87,611 
67,360 

25,582 
20,448 
7,465 
35,190 
10, 746 


Acres. 
31,080 
37, 639 
41,373 
39,621 
38,813 

10,363 
14,206 

7,146 
13,430 

5,374 


Acres. 
153, 278 


Vesterbotten 

Vesternorrland 

Jemtland 


Kronoberg 

Jonkoping 

Skaraborg 

Flfsborg 


98, 199 
108,667 
127, 232 
106, 173 


Gevleborg 


Kopparberg 

Vermland 


GoteborgandBo- 
hus 


35, 945 


Orebro 


Halland-. 


34,654 


Vestmanland 


Blekinge 


14,611 
48,620 


Upsala 


Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Total, Swe- 
den 


Stockholm 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Gotland. 


16,120 


9,143,017 


2,988 190 


a 12 131 207 








' 



a In this table is not included about 772,000 acres of productive forest land in northern Sweden, the owner- 
ship of which has not yet been decided. 

The public forests are divided into 10 districts, and the productive 
forest area in each district is shown in the following table: 



Districts. 



Lulea 

Skelleftea 

Umea 

Central Norrland. 

Gevle-Dala 

Berg^lag 

Ostra 



State- 


Other 




owned 


public 


Total. 


forests. 


forests. 




Acres. 


Acres. 


Acres. 


2,882,000 


847,000 


3, 729, 000 


2, 152, 000 


194,000 


2,346,000 


1,751,000 


94, 000 


1,845,000 


572,000 


554, 000 


1, 126, 000 


917,000 


603, 000 


1,520,000 


209,000 


266, 000 


475, 000 


156,000 


192, 000 


348,000 



Districts. 



Vestra 

Smaland 

Sodra 

Total, Swe 
den 



State- 
owned 

forests. 



Acres. 
164,000 
208,000 
132,000 



Other 
public 
forests. 



Acres. 

76, 000 
107,000 

55,000 



9,143,000 2,988,000 



Total. 



Acres. 
240,000 
315,000 
187,000 



12,131,000 



Administration. — The public forests in Sweden are managed by the 
Swedish Forest Service, which is a part of the Department of Agri- 
culture and is located at the capital, Stockholm. At the head of the 
Forest Service are a General Director and six assistant directors. At 
the head of each district of the State forests are a district forester and 
a number of assistant foresters, forest engineers, and other assistants. 

The Forest Service has complete control over the State-owned 
forests and either supervises or manages the other public forests. 
The Forest Service is also in charge of the execution of the laws in 
regard to the management of the forests in Sweden, cutting, etc., and 
it is also expected to work for improved methods of forestry in pri- 
vate, as well as public, forests. The increased profits during late 
years from the operations of the State-owned forests will enable the 
Forest Service to carry out many plans for improvements, such as 
draining, reforestation, etc. 

The statistical information available in regard to public forest 
lands is restricted mainly to the State-owned forests, and these 
forests chiefly will be taken into consideration in this report. 

The policy of tl?e Swedish Government has been to endeavor to 
unite the many small parcels of forest land in the southern part of the 



46 SWEDISH LUMBER IISTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

country by additional purchases of forest lands located in the inter- 
mediate sections. The Government has also purchased extensive 
areas of cut-over or burned forest lands with a view to reforestation 
of these areas. Purchases of this kind have been made notably in 
the coastal regions of southwestern Sweden. The Government 
generally buys cheaper forest lands than do private concerns, be- 
cause the Government does not expect any immediate return, while 
private concerns must always take the financial side into 
consideration. 

The Government purchases of forest lands were as follows from 
1875 to 1915: 



Years. 


Acres. 


Value. 


Years.- 


Acres. 


Value. 


1875 


5,000 
28,000 

3,000 
110,000 
116,000 
332, 000 


$14,000 
209, 000 
27, 000 
363,000 
679, 000 
2,114,000 


1901-1905 


135,000 
123,000 
126,000 


1,406,000 
1,347,000 
1,566,000 


1876-1880 


1906-1910 


1881-1885 


1911-1915 


1886 18P0 


1875-1915. 


1891-1895 


978,000 


7,715,000 


1896-1900 









Stands. — ^Most of the virgin timberlands in Sweden are Govern- 
ment owned, and the Government has been very conservative in the 
cutting, particularly in the north, on account of the difficult condi- 
tions for logging and floating and the unsatisfactory market con- 
ditions for saw logs and wood products that are often present in that 
part of the country. 

The information with regard to the stands in the State forests is. 
very incomplete. An estimate made by the forest commissions 
gives the average stand in the State forests (productive forest lands) 
as follows, based on trees 4 inches in diameter and up, at breast 
height: 



Districts. 


Cubic 

feet per 

acre. 


Districts. 


Cubic 

feet per 

acre. 


Lulea 


458 
715 
858 
1,001 
858 


Bergslag 


901 


Skelleftea 


Ostra.. . - 


1,030 


Umea 


Vestra 


915 


Central Nprrland 


P maland 

Sodra 


930 


Gevle-Dam 


787 







In regard to the forests in portions of the two northernmost dis- 
tricts in Sweden, the following estimate is given — the result of a 
recent cruising in that section: 



Items. 



Norrbotten. 



Coast. 



Interior. 



Vesterbotten. 



Coast. 



Interior. 



Total area investigated acres. 

Productive forests do. . . 

Unproductive forests do. . . 

Cultivated land do. . . 

Young growng forest {per 'c'eLT.*: 

Stands mature for cutting {per 'cent. ^i 

Overmature and defective stands {per ceirt '^' 



Total .';tnnds. 



fcubic feet 
"\"ubic 



feet per acre. 



241,661 

177,389 

63,936 

336 

25,619,000 

24 

44,018,000 

40 

39,561,000 

36 

109,198,000 

615 



15,209 

13,519 

1,675 

15 

2,348,000 

34 

2,638,000 

38 

1,982,000 

28 

6,96^,000 

51.) 



26, 607 

22,543 

3,97S 

86 

2,528,000 

23 

4,369,000 

40 

3,946,000 

37 

10,843,000 

4S1 



840,843 

6.52,008 

186,643 

2 192 

128,160'000 

29 

194,177,000 

43 

127,095,000 

28 

449,432,000 

689 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 47 



A large area in the Provinces of Vesternorrland and Jemtland was 
also cruised over, and the results are shown in the following table, 
gi\ ing the actual percentages of barren land and of trees of different 
age groups, compared with the corresponding percentages for a 
normal stand based on cutting at 130 years: 



Items. 


Barren 
land. 


1-20 

years. 


20-40 
years. 


40-60 
years. 


60-80 
years. 


80-100 
years. 


100-120 

years. 


120-140 
years. 


140-160 

years. 


160-lsO 
years. 




4.0 
7.1 


3.0 
14.3 


9.7 
14.3 


13.2 
14.3 


9.7 
14.3 


5. .T 

14.3 


4.9 
14.3 


9.9 
7.1 


12.7 


27.4 


Normal percentages based on 
cutting at 130 years 











From this table it is seen that the State forests in the north con- 
tain a large percentage of overmature trees, and it is a great problem 
for the Forest Service to clean up these forests so as to give better 
growing conditions for the young stands. There is only a limited 
market for pulp wood in these northern sections of the country, and 
this is a great handicap in carrying out a rational forest policy. The 
coastal districts, on the other hand, offer better marketing facilities 
for small-dimension timber, which necessarily must be cut in order 
to improve the stands, and the forests are therefore largely second 
growtli. 

The forest commissions (see p. 58) have compiled statistics in 
regard to the percentage of trees 13| inches and more in diameter at 
breast height in the various districts of Norrland and Dalecarlia. 
This size is considered as mature timber for cutting saw logs, and 
the age varies from 140 to 200 years. The figures are as follows: 
Lulea, 25 per cent; Skelleftea, 22 per cent; Umea, 35 per cent; Cen- 
tral Norrland, 35 per cent; Gevle-Dala, 38 per cent; average, 34 per 
cent. 

The average age of maturity in southern Norrland is from 130 to 
140 years and in northern Norrland, from 160 to 180 years. 

It has also been pointed out that on account of the large percentage 
of overmature stands, the timber shows serious defects, such as rot. 
The proportion of such defective timber is given at 3 to 20 per cent, 
according to location. 

The latest report of the forest commissions also contains the follow- 
ing statement with regard to the percentages of trees of different age 
OToups and of land denuded of forests in different parts of the State 
forests in southern and central Sweden: 



Districts. 


1-20 

years. 


21-40 

years. 


41-60 

years. 


61-80 
years. 


81-100 
years. 


101 years ^f,"^^ ?% 
-d-P- ^Jofelfs°^ 


Bergslag 


27.3 
20.6 
29.4 
23.7 
32.6 


27.6 
25.2 
26.9 
21.5 
25.0 


18.7 
18.7 
16.3 
18.6 
16.6 


8.7 
13.8 
10.3 
10.7 

8.2 


6.8 
8.3 
5.5 
6.6 
6.5 


6.5 
4.5 
4.4 
11.4 
4.2 


4.4 


Ostra 


8.9 


Vestra 


7.2 


Smaland 


7.5 


Sodra 


6.9 








26.7 


25.4 


17.9 


10.3 


6.7 


6.3 


6. 7 







Annual cut. — ^The State was extremely careful in cutting its for- 
ests up to the time of the war. The cutting system followed has gen- 
erally been to fell only trees having more than a certain diameter at 



48 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

breast height and the young growth has not been touched unless it 
was necessary to improve the stands. 

In northern Sweden the State forests are often located in places 
where it is difficult to log the timber, and the floating f acilitiesp may 
also be unsatisfactory in many districts. These conditions are largely 
responsible for the unsatisfactory prices often obtained for Govern- 
ment timber. In some cases, however, there is no question that 
different purchasers of saw logs and standing timber nave formed 
combinations or agreements with a view to holding down the price 
of the raw material, although this system is not developed to such 
an extent as in Finland. 

The State may sell either the standing tipaber or the saw logs de- 
livered at the banks of the floating rivers. The following statement 
shows how the total quantity of wood cut has been disposed of by 
the State during the years 1911-1915 (average) : Standing timber sold, 
78 per cent; logs cut by State and sold, 13 per cent; charcoal made 
from waste, 3 per cent; lumber sawed in Government mills, 1 per 
cent; wood cut for special pm'poses and not sold, 5 per cent. 

The following detailed statement shows how the timber was dis- 
posed of in 1915: 

Cubic feet. 

Standing timber sold 129, 283, 461 

Wood cut before it was sold: 

Saw logs, pulp wood, props, railroad ties, etc 18, 235, 909 

Saw logs cut into lumber in State-owned mills 1, 273, 624 

Firewood, etc 10, 484, 735 

Wood for charcoal (manufactured by State) 5, 402, 206 

Timber cut for special purposes not for sale 5, 585, 201 

Total 170, 265, 136 

The following statement shows the cut per acre, from 1911 to 
1915, of productive State forest land in the different districts of 
Sweden : 



Districts. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


Lulea 


Cu.ft. 
5.9 
11.0 
11.6 

25.0 
22.9 
31.0 
25.3 
19.6 
23.5 
18.2 


Cu.ft. 
5.1 
11.0 
14.7 
22.0 
21.0 
30.0 
27.5 
23.6 
24.6 
18.3 


Cu.ft. 
7.0 
10.7 
16.6 
30.0 
22.6 
31.5 
28.7 
28.5 
24.6 
24.9 


Cu.ft. 
7.2 
12.6 
14.4 
29.9 
24.3 
32.0 
29.0 
30.6 
25.9 
24.5 


Cu.ft. 
9.6 


Skellef tea 


15.2 


Umea 


19.6 


Central Norrland 


35.2 


Gevle-Dala . . . 


28.8 


Bergslag 


37.8 


Ostra.. 


32.2 


Vestra 


35.8 


Smaland . 


32.9 


Sodra ... 


25.4 






All districts 


12.9 


12.7 


14.6 


15.0 


18.6 







The following table shows the area of productive State forests, the 
cut, and the cut per acre, in each district of Sweden in 1915: 



Districts. 


Area. 


Cut in 1915. 


Cut 
per 
acre. 


Districts. 


Area. 


Cut in 1915. 


Cut. 
per 
acre. 




Acres. 

2,8,S2,W0 

2,152,00() 

1,751,000 

572, 000 

917,00(1 

209,000 


Cubic feet. 
27, 553, 000 
32, 800, 000 
34,407,000 
20,136,000 
26,447,000 
7,766,000 


Cu.ft. 
9.6 
15.2 
19.6 
35.2 
28.8 
37.2 


Ostra 


Acres. 
156,000 
164, 000 
208, 000 
132,000 


Cubic feet. 
5, 123, 000 
5, 895, 000 
6,731,000 
3, 407, 000 


Cu.ft. 
32.8 


Skelleftea 




35.9 


Umea 




32.4 


Central Norrland 


Sodra 


25.8 




Total, Swe- 
den 




Bergslag 


9, 143, 000 


170,265,000 






18.6 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 49 

The following statement shows the operations in the State forests 
for 1911 to 1915: 



Years. 


Standing 
timber sold. 


Log^, fire- 
wood, etc., 
cut by State. 


Timber cut 

for special 

purposes 

(not for sale). 


Total cut. 


Cut per 

acre. 


1911 . 


Cubicfcet. 
93, 572, 983 
93,085,853 
104, 696, 552 
104,390,466 
129,283,461 


Cubicfcet. 
14,011,311 
16,052,852 
22,781,490 
27,835,674 
35,396,474 


Cubicfeet. 
5,881,741 
8,428,899 
7,131,518 
5,938,403 
5, 585, 201 


Cubicfeet. 
113,466,035 
117,567,604 
134, 609, 560 
138, 164, 543 
170, 265, 136 


Cubicfeet. 
12.87 


1912 


12.73 


1913 


14.59 


1914 . 


15.02 


1915 . 


18.62 







The following table shows the percentages of the total cut in the 
different districts for 1914 and 1915: 



Districts. 


1914 


1915 


Districts. 


1914 


1915 


Lulea 


Per cent. 
15 
20 
19 
12 
16 


Percent. 
16 
19 

20 
12 
16 


Bergslag 


Per cent. 
5 
3 
4 
4 
2 


Per cent. 


Skelleftea 


Ostra 


5 


Umea 


Vestra 


3 


Central Norrland 


S maland 


4 


Gevle-Dala 


Sodra 


2 









About 17 per cent of the total cut is thus effected in the southern 
and central parts of the country and 83 per cent in Norrland and 
Dalecarlia. 

The total cut of saw logs in the State forests in 1915, including 
those cut from the standing timber sold, was estimated at 53,000,000 
cubic feet, or about 17 per cent of the total quantity of saw logs pro- 
duced for sawing lumber for export in the country. 

For the prices obtained for standing timber and saw logs from the 
State forests, see section "Logging." 

Considerable quantities of charcoal are produced annually in the 
State forests. The figure for 1915 was approximately 3,500,000 
bushels; for 1914,3,100,000 bushels; and for 1911, 1,900,000 bushels. 
The increased production of charcoal was due to the high prices paid 
during the war. 

Value and revenue. — ^The average value per acre of the State 
forests during the period 1911-1915 was as follows: Lulea, $4.66; 
Skelleftea, $9.97; Umea, $17.15; Central Norrland, $32.20; Gevle- 
Dala, $26.48; Bergslag, $36.58; Ostra, $27.47; Vestra, $34.51; 
Smaland, $37.65; Sodra, $25.73. The value of all State forests is 
approximately $135,608,000 (1915). 

The following table shows the gross revenue from the State forests, 
the expenditures, the net revenue, and the net revenue per acre, 
from 1911 to 1915: 





Gross revenue. 


Expendi- 
tures. 


Net reve- 
nue. 


Net revenue 

per acre of 

productive 

forest. 


Years. 


Sale of 
standing 
timber. 


Sale of logs, 
etc. 


Rents, etc. 


Total. 


1911 


S2, 623, 669 
2, 794, 541 
3,609,684 
3,241,588 
4, 899, 987 


$603, 148 

741, 578 

1,097,801 

1,459,337 

1,999,449 


$231,795 
236,243 
232, 972 
256, 822 
271,801 


83,458,612 
3,772,362, 
4,940,457 
4,957,747 
7,171,237 


$1,044,159 
1, 159, 676 
1,415,206 
1,686,512 
1,857,968 


$2,414,453 
2,612,686 
3,525,251 
3,271,235 
5,313,269 


80.27 


1912 


.28 


1913 


.38 


1914 


.35 


1915 


.57 







2092' 



50 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 51 

The table gives the latest available official figures, but it is under- 
stood that the revenue from the State forests has increased greatly 
since 1915. 

Reforestation and improvements. — One of the Government's princi- 
pal plans for reforestation in Sweden covers approximately 500,000 
acres of heather, located largel}^ in the Province of Halland. In this 
Proviiice approximately 47,000 acres were reforested from 1890 to 
1907, and approximately 25,000 acres from 1907 to 1917 —a total of 
72,000 acres in 27 years. Approximately 200,000 acres of heather 
in the whole couiitr}^ had been reforested up to 1917, and .300,000 
acres remain to be reforested within the next 20 years, according to 
the plan. 

Considerable areas have been planted and seeded in the State 
forests: in 1915, 2,965 acres were planted and 8,649 acres seeded at 
a cost of $80,400. The cost of this forest culture in the State 
forests averaged .«6.16 per acre from 1911 to 1915. including plants, 
seeds, etc. It has been conducted especially in southern Sweden. 
The forests in northern Sweden appear to have been given less atten- 
tion by the Government in this respect, although they have yielded 
by far the largest revenues. 

The Government has furthermore accomplislied considerable work 
in road building, the cleaning up of rivers for floating purposes, 
draijiage, etc. 

FOREST INSTITUTIONS AND SCHOOLS. 

Since 1902 the Government has operated a forest laboratory devot- 
ing its time to research and investigations on questions bearing on 
forestry. The laboratory has two sections, one devoted to forest 
management and investigations in regard to the growth of the stands, 
etc., and the other devoted mainly to geological and botanical studies. 

This laboratory maintains experiment areas in all parts of the 
country and has already accomplished excellent results. It pub- 
lishes numerous books and reports with a wide circulation among 
Swedish forest owners, who follow with interest the results of these 
investigations. It is felt that the work of the laboratory is of the 
greatest practical importance because the Government is in a better 
position than individual forest owners to determine b}^ experiment 
how to obtain the most satisfactory results from forest exploitation. 

The laboratory has also experimented extensively with the planting 
of foreign species in Sweden. 

Sweden has had a college of forestry since 1828. In 1915 the old 
institution was found inadequate for the needs of the country and 
a new college, with magnificent buildings and equipment, took its 
place. The college is located in the outskirts of Stockholm, in the 
vicinity of many similar institutes. 

The requirements for entrance to the College of Forestry are nine 
months of practical training in the field and a solid foundation of 
liigher education (college graduation). The course covers both theo- 
retical and practical instruction and lasts during three autumn, two 
spring, and two summer terms. Another shorter course of 1.^ 3'ears 
is maintained, for which the entrance requirements are 22 months of 
practical experience in the field and a high-school education. A 
variety of subjects are taken up, such as chemistry, zoology, botany, 



52 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

forest management, cruising, etc. The graduates from the first 
course qualify for service in the State forests as district foresters and 
those from the second course as foresters in minor capacities. 

It has often been difficult for the Government to turn out a sufficient 
number of graduates to supply the demand for foresters in Sweden, 
as many graduates of the College of Forestr}^ enter private serNice. 
The college is without an equal in northern Europe and upon the 
work of its gi-aduates will largely depend the future of the rational 
management of the Swedish forests. 

Singularly enough, slight attention has been paid to the testing of 
timbers in Sweden, and no adequate machines are found at the State 
college for making such tests. The only institute in Sweden that has 
conducted any research work along this line is the Chalmerska Insti- 
tute in Goteborg. 

The State also maintains seven schools of forestry in different parts 
of the country. At each school there is an experiment forest area 
devoted to practical instruction for the students. The course gener- 
ally lasts one year, and the object is to give practical insight into 
forest management and the supervision of operations in the forests. 
Both tlie Government and private institutes maintain special courses 
of instruction in burning charcoal. 

The instruction in all State-owned colleges and schools is practi- 
cally free, and at the forest schools the students also obtain their 
board and rooms free of charge. 

There are a few private schools and institutes for the teaching of 
forestry generally connected with agricultural colleges. 

The Ericson Institute of forest management and sawmilling in 
Hernosand is unique in northern Europe. This institution is devoted 
, to the teacliing of subjects such as logging and milling, and special 
stress is laid upon methods of crosscutting, grading, and sa^\^ng the 
logs so as to obtain the best possible results. All the operations in 
sawmill, yard, and dock are also studied. This school is attended by 
forest and sawmill operators from all over northern. Europe. 

Formerly Swedish foresters were to a great extent dependent upon 
Germany for their education in the advanced subjects of forestry: 
but, with the present system of schools and institutes, Sweden is in 
a position to give satisfactory instruction in all phases of the subject. 

FOREST FIRES. 

Most of the forests in Sweden give evidence of having been burned 
over in centuries past and most of what has not been burned over has 
been logged over. There are only small areas of virgin timberlands 
untouched by fire or ax. Forest fires in Sweden are not important at 
present; the damage in any one year would not exceed .?250,000. 
This is due to the efforts of the private forest ownei"s, as well as the 
Government, to check forest fires. ■ 

Concerning the fires in private forests, the information obtainable 
is verv meager. It is estimated that the burned area in the public 
forests (State-owned and other) may average from 10,000 to 12,000 
acres annually and in private forests from 30,000 to 40,000 acres. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory. Stockholm. 

FIG. U.— SIXTEEN-YEAR-OLD PINE STAND IN CENTRAL NORRLAND. 





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^^?*x. 




1 




1 




;-'^'-'- 




ll 


^ 


'1 


^. 


-J 


v- ^ 


'*"*"'' 






31 


b 


IL 


V' 






,y. 








> 


H 


R**'f#^W 





Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory. Stockholm. 

FIG. 15.— DRAINING OF FOREST LAND, SOUTHERN NORRLAND. 



special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of I' 



FIG. 16.— METHOD Oh CUTTING. TREES MARKED "X" ARE TO BE REMOVED 
TO GIVE BETTER GROV^ING CONDITIONS FOR REMAINING TREES. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, 53 

The following figures show the burned areas in the State-owned 
forests from 1876 to 1912: 



Acres. 

1876-1879 93, 000 

1880-1884 60, 000 

1885-1889 51,000 

1890-1 894 37,000 

1895-1899 9,000 



Acres. 

1900-1904 47, 000 

1905-1909 : 4, 000 

1910 1,000 

1911 2, 000 

1912 2, 000 



There are no important forest-fire insurance companies in Sweden, 
although such companies have been planned on various occasions. 

In many forests there are efficient fire-patrol systems, but in the 
northern districts of the country it is difficult to patrol the forests, 
because the population is very scattered. The absence of under- 
brush, the scattered stands, and the precipitation throughout the 
year cause the damage done by forest fires in Sweden to be very 
limited, and this question does not merit a great deal of attention. 

TAXES. 

Before the war the taxes in Sweden were very moderate. There 
was no important tax on standing timber, but taxes, municipal or 
Government, were levied on the profits derived from the sale of the 
forest products cut each year. The taxes seldom exceeded 12 to 14 
per cent of the income, and in many cases they amomited to less 
than this figure. 

Besides a special tax of 1.3 per cent for the support of the forest 
commissions there was another special tax of 2 per cent which was 
collected by the communes where the forests were located. 

During the war the taxes increased very materially, and in many 
cases as much as from 40 to 45 per cent was paid on large incomes. 
There is stiU, however, no important tax on standing timber, as it 
is felt that such a tax might lead to cutting that would not be in 
accordance with rational management. 

VALUE OF TIMBERLANDS. 

The total value of the Swedish forests was last estimated in 1908, 
when the national wealth of Sweden was estimated at about $3,800,- 
000,000. The following valuation was made for the forests at that 
time: State forests, $62,000,000; other public forests, $21,000,000; 
private forests, $334,000,000; total, $417,000,000. 

Since 1908 all values have gone up, and these figures are of little 
importance at the present time. It may be of interest, however, to 
see what values were placed on the timberlands of the Government 
in proportion to the values of other public forests and of private 
forests. The table following shows the valuation per acre in 1908 
of Government forests, other public forests, private forests, and all 
forests in the different Provinces of Sweden and in the whole country. 



54 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



Provinces. 



Stockholm 

Upsala 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Jonkoping 

KronoDerg 

Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

M ilmohus 

Halland 

Goteborg and Bohus. 



Gov- 
ern- 
ment 
forests. 



Per 

acre. 

$10. 85 

16.30 

15.25 

19.00 

21.15 

18.45 

19.55 

7.10 

8.70 

7.65 

21.15 

8.20 

4.35 



Other 
public 
forests. 



Per 
acre. 
$14. 20 
16.30 
17.45 
19.00 
17.95 
15.70 
16.60 
7.80 
9.50 
8.30 
12.70 
8.20 
5.20 



Pri- 
vate 
forests. 



Per 

acre. 
$9.70 
13.00 
10.70 
11.40 
8.50 
7.40 
7.80 
5.65 
7.80 
7.65 
15.80 
6.45 
4.85 



All 

forests. 



Per 
acre. 
$9.85 
13.40 
11.20 
12.20 
9.35 
8.85 
8.80 
5.85 
7.80 
7.65 
16.05 
6.80 
4.85 



Provinces. 



Elfsborg 

Skaraborg 

Vermlana 

Orebro 

Vestmanland . . 

Kopparberg 

Gevleborg 

Vesternorrland. 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten . . . 
Norrbotten 



Total, Sweden . 



Gov- 
ern- 
ment 
forests. 



Per 
acre. 
.811.95 
21.15 
16.30 
17.40 
17.40 

9.20 
25. 45 
11.95 
12.45 

7.10 

3.20 



6.70 



Other 
public 

forests. 



Per 
acre. 
$13. 15 
16.90 
19.55 
20.90 
20.90 

7.80 
13.95 

9.50 
12.45 

6.40 

3.90 



10.30 



Pri- 
vate 
forests, 



Per 
acre. 
$7. 75 
10. 45 
10.45 
13.00 
13.00 
7.80 
8.85 
7.14 
6.85 
5.65 
3.20 



8.00 



All 

forests. 



Per 

acre. 

$8.00 

11.95 

10.85 

13.40 

13.75 

8.00 

9.85 

7.50 

7.10 

6.10 

3.20 



7.90 



In 1918, the value of average forest land (2,100 to 2,500 cubic feet 
per acre) was generally given as $32 to $54 per acre, according to 
the location and quality of the timber. For better stands as high as 
$108 per acre was frequently paid. These values, however, may be 
considered as maximum. 

Frequently, extensive forest holdings are purchased, including 
farm land and other cultivated property. In such cases the value is 
based on the cubical contents of the stands and may range from 4 
to 6 cents per cubic foot of standing timber. Before the war, about 
half of these prices was paid. It is difficult to give the present value 
of the timberlands, because there are many conditions to be con- 
sidered in each case, such as the distance from the forests to the 
nearest floating rivers, which is of special importance in forest oper- 
ations. Generally speaking, however, the value of timberland 
increased at least 100 per cent from 1913 to 1918. 

Before the war, it may be said that the value of timberlands of 
average good stands was about $5.35 per acrfe in the northern Prov- 
inces of Sweden, $15.50 per acre in central and southern Norrland, and • 
$12.90 per acre in southern Sweden. 



LAWS AFFECTING FOREST MANAGEMENT AND CUTTING. 

The first laws with regard to forest management and cutting 
considered only the forest lands in public ownership and date 700 
years back. Later, however, the private forests were considered, and 
to-day every acre of forest land in Sweden is subject to special 
regulations adapted to suit the circumstances in each part of the 
country. 

As the question of laws governing forest management and cutting 
is mider consideration at the present time in the United States, it 
may be of interest to give the essential points of the Swedish forest 
laws, because the conditions in Sweden are to a great extent similar 
to those prevailing in most of the forest sections in this country. 
It must be borne in mind that a great majority of the Swedish forests 
extend through an area with a very scattered population, and that 
these forests can not be managed in the same way as the forests in 
central Europe whore the population is much more dense. 

The different sections of trie country to which the following laws 
apply are designated on Fig. 17. 



SWEDISH LUMBER I^-DUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



55 




Bui'e^u of Forehn and Domestic Commerce 



SWEDEN 

(SVERIGE) 

FOREST AREAS 

COVERED BY SPECIAL 

LAWS 

I I General Law for Private Forest 

1^=^ Lappmark Law 

^H Dimension Law 

Protection Forest Law 
Gottland and Oland Law 



Fig. 17. 



56 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



LAPPMARK LAW. 



The Lappmark law, which was passed in 1866 and 1873, applies to 
the private forests in the interior Provinces of Norrbotten and 
Vesterbotten and stipulates that cutting must be effected only after the 
trees have been marked for cutting by a Government forester. The 
cutting system is based on principles suitable for these particular dis- 
tricts, where the growth of the timber is very slow. The marking 
of trees is made for three years in advance. In this way it is en- 
deavored to safeguard the future of these forests and also to obtain 
the highest possible annual yield. The owners of these forests may 
cut the wood necessary for their personal use or for use on their 
property, such as building material, fuel, etc. The compulsory 
marking of trees by a Government forester refers only tv '^ees des- 
tined for commercial purposes. The law is intended to protect the 
cultivated areas in northern Sweden by preventing the forests from 
being cut down, because the forests shield the agricultural land. It 
was also considered important that lumber and pulp mills should be 
prevented from purchasing farm wood lots the loss of which would 
greatly reduce the farm's value because they represent its sole source 
of building materials and fuel. 

The effect of the law has been the conservation of the forests, but i 
can not be said that the forest management has been satisfactory it 
all respects. The cutting has been regulated according to the princi- 
ple of annual growth, and as these forests often contain up to 90 per 
cent of overmature stands, showing a very small annual increment, 
the cutting has been very restricted. It has been contended that it 
would have been better policy if these overmature forests had been 
cut to a greater extent, because they represent dead capital. Cutting 
out these overmature stands, it is believed, would also afford better 
growing conditions to the younger stands. 

An amendment to this law in 1915 provided that overmature forests 
might be cut to a larger extent, if the forest owner took the necessary 
steps for reforestation. 

DIMENSION LAW. 

The dnnension law, passed in 1874 and 1882, applies to the coastal 
districts of the Provinces of Norrland and Vesterbotten. It was 
intended to check the excess cutting of young stands. The law 
stipulates that no timber less than 7 inches in diameter at 16 feet 
from the ground may be cut unless special permission is given by a 
Government forester. An exception to this rule is granted when 
timber is cut for the owner's personal use. Before this law was 
passed, large stands of young forests were recklessly cut down for 
small timber for export. 

This law is of a decidedly primitive character and has not im- 
proved forest management. The stands have been drained of large- 
dimension timber, while old and defective small growth has been 
left. An improvement in this law is expected. 

SPECIAL FOREST LAW FOR GOTLAND AND OLAND. 

A law was passed in 1869 to protect the forests on the Islands of 
Gotland and Oland, in the Baltic Sea. The law states that land 
suitable for forests shall be maintained as forest land, unless the 
stands are cut down with a view to utilizing the land for agricultural 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 57 

purposes. Cutting for other purposes than for the personal needs 
of the forest owner and his property must be reported in advance to 
the authorities, who grant licenses for cutting. After the cutting 
has taken place, the owner must take the necessary steps for refor- 
esting the cut-over areas. 

The forest areas in the Islands of Gotland and Oland had been 
severely drained before this law was passed. The operation of the 
law has been very satisfactory, particularly as it is enforced by 
special forest comniissions. (Regarding forest commissions see follow- 
ing chapter.) 

FOREST LAW FOR OTHER PARTS OF SWEDEN. 

The law governing the management of private forests in other 
parts 6{ Sweden was passed in 1903. The substance of this law is 
that forest lands in private ownership must not be cut in such a way 
that the reproduction of the forests would be endangered. If the 
forests are cut recklessly the owner must take steps to have his 
lands reforested. Enforcement and supervision of the law are left 
to the forest commission in each Province. 

This law was passed with a view to checking the excess cutting 
.that had taken place in Sweden prior to 1903 and to safeguard the 
*^nation's timber supply. The effect of the law has been generally 
^ satisfactory. But the regulations have not been strict enough in 
all cases to protect the forests, especially those exposed to the ele- 
ments. Furthermore, it has been contended that this law does not 
protect standing forests, but merely makes provision for reforestation. 

During the war the greatly increased excess cutting resulted in 
an amendment of this law. The new law passed in June, 1918, 
stipulates that young growing forests in the territory to which this 
law applies must not be cut unless such cutting is effected with a 
view to improving the stands (thinning). Dispensation may be 
given by the forest commission in each Province if it is found that 
the cutting of young growth is in accordance with the principles of 
rational forest management. If the cut-over land is destined for 
agricultural purposes, pastures, building sites, etc., this law does 
not apply. This law is expected definitely to safeguard the nation's 
timber supply. 

If the law is broken, the forest commission shall prohibit any 
future cutting of the young growth beyond the quantities that the 
owner may need for his personal use or for use on his property. The 
owner of a forest where the commission has prohibited further cut- 
ting may appeal to higher authorities in case of complaint regarding 
the forest commission's decision. If the forests are cut in spite of 
the commission's regulations, a fine is imposed upon the forest owner 
and the timber cut is confiscated. 

LAWS CONCERNING PROTECTION FORESTS. 

In several parts of Sweden it has been found that the -forests must 
be conserved in order to shield adjacent agricultural land and to pro- 
tect lands close to the sea from sand storms. These protection areas 
are located mainly in the Province of Jemtland and on the south- 
western coast of Sweden. The forests in these territories must not 
be cut for other purposes than the personal needs of the owner and 



58 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

his property unless the trees are marked by a State forester. The 
law does not contain any regulations for forest management. 

The improved floating conditions of many Swedish rivers in the 
mountainous regions had made it possible for the Swedish lumbermen 
to extend the area of logging operations toward the mountains 
after having exploited the other districts. The consequence was 
that previous to the passage of this law the forests were injudiciously 
cut at the timber limit, so that new growth was impossible and the 
timber limit was lowered each year. 

The protection forests are under the direct supervision of the 
Government and the activities of the forest commissions do not ex- 
tend to them. Many people believe it would be advantageous to 
have the forest commissions supervise the cutting of these forests 
also. 

AREAS COVERED BY FOREST LAWS. 

According to the forest^service statistics for 1915, the areas where 
these laws are in force are as follows, including about 554,000 acres 
of private forests over which the State has a certain amount of 
control : 

Acres. 

Area covered by Lappmark 
law 4, 755, 000 

Area covered by dimension 
law !....... 3, 180, 000 

Area covered by protection- 
forest law 2, 074, 000 

Area covered by Scotland and 
Oland law 335, 000 



Acres. 
Area covered by laws con- 
cerning private forests in 
other sections 32, 636, 000 



Total 42, 980, 000 



FOREST COMMISSIONS. 

Since 1903, each Province where the general law governing the 
cutting in private forests is in effect has had a forest commission, con- 
sisting of three members servmg for a term of three years — a chair- 
man appointed by the Government, one member appointed by the 
provincial government, and one member appointed by a local asso- 
ciation of a semiofficial nature working for the betterment of agri- 
culture and forestry in each Province. There is no central organiza- 
tion of forest commissions; each commission reports to the forest 
service. Their reports are published by the Swedish Forestry Asso- 
ciation, the work of which is described in the next section. The com- 
missions are often assisted by expert foresters and they also have 
local committees, when necessary, in the communes and counties. 

Besides seeing that the law is properly carried out, the forest com- 
missions perform an important function in furthering local interest 
in better forest management. Their program includes the mainte- 
nancerof nurseries and the distribution of seeds and plants for re- 
forestation purposes. Furthermore, these commissions issue many 
treatises on forest culture, conservation, forest management, etc. In 
1914 about 50,000 acres of land was placed under forest culture, under 
the supervision of the forest commissions. 

The expenses of the commissions are defrayed partly by a special 
tax amounting to 1 .3 per cent of the stumpage values of the timber 
cut. Ninety per cent of the amount collected in this way is used in 
the Province in which it is collected and 10 per cent goes to make 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AISTD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 59 

up a central fund for the whole country. The law stipulates that the 
funds collected from this tax must be used for no pui^Doses other than 
the forest commissions' work and other expenses connected with the 
management of private forests. Besides this special revenue, the 
forest commissions obtain considerable support from both the Prov- 
vinces and the Government. In 1915 the subsidy received from the 
Government was $45,000 and from the Provinces $34,000. A profit 
of $55,000 was derived from the sale of plants, seeds, etc. The in- 
come from special taxes was $310,000, making a total income of 
$444,000. 

Only where forest owners are unwilling to comply with the direc- 
tions of the forest commissions are the cases taken to court. The 
work of the commissions has been quite satisfactory, and very little 
trouble is experienced in enforcing the law. It is believed that the 
forest commissions have encountered less opposition than would 
have been met by any pm'ely governmental agency. The control of 
the cuttmg in privately owned forests is a decided limitation on pri- 
vate-property rights, which is less of a burden and is more likely to 
be recognized as an ultimate benefit, it is thought, when exercised 
through a commission on which local mterests, both public and 
private, are represented. 

The new forest law of Finland provides for forest commissions after 
the Swedish pattern. 

FORESTRY ASSOCIATIONS. 

Associations interested in promoting forestry are very active in 
Sweden. The most important is the Swedish Forestry Association, 
fomided in 1902, which issues numerous publications on forest man- 
agement, forestry, and related subjects and has had a very beneficial 
influence in spreading information among people interested in forestry. 
A very practical step has been taken by this association in dividing the 
publications into two categories, one consisting of popular mono- 
graphs on forest problems, mtended for readm^ by the general public, 
and the other of more scientific material. This association publishes 
the reports of the forest commissions. 

Another organization of great importance is the Association of 
Forestry in Norrland, which also issues manj^ publications. In 
southern Sweden there are several smaller associations working for 
better forest management, etc. 

In the Provinces where the forest commissions do not operate, the 
provincial governments and agricultural associations have appomted 
special experts, who work for the furthering of rational forest man- 
agement practically without remuneration. 

Every year, during the early spring, the Swedish Association of 
Forestry arranges for a forest week, which is attended by aU the in- 
dustries and individuals mterested in forestry. Great importance is 
attached to this convention, which is attended by the leading men of 
the comitry and is opened by the Swedish King. By attending these 
conventions, one receives a very striking unpression of the considera- 
tion given to the forests in Sweden and the dependence of the nation 
upon its forest wealth. 



60 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



ANNUAL INCREMENT AND ANNUAL CONSUMPTION. 

The statement that the Swedish forests are cut in excess of their 
annual growth has been made for hundreds of years. These conclu- 
sions seem very peculiar to-day if one does not take into considera- 
tion that the accessible forest area has been extended largely during 
the past generations and even to-day there are extensive timber hold- 
ings in northern Sweden that have not been opened up to exploita- 
tion on a large scale. 



PRE5ENT NET 
ANNUAL INCREMENT 



1, 312.080, 600 
CUBIC FEET 



PRE-WAR 
ANNUAL CUT 



564-,8Z6.000 
CUBIC FEET 



POSSIBLE FUTURE 

ANNUAL 
NET INCREMENT 



I.74e>.777,000 
CUBIC FEET 



Fig. 18.— Annual increment and annual cut in the Swedish forests and possible annual increment. 

In centuries past, only the forest areas in the immediate proximity 
of the more densely populated districts were exploited because the 
floating rivers were not improved so as to facilitate the transporta- 
tion of saw logs. 

The first statement in regard to annual increment and annual cut- 
ting was published in a report of the forest commissions in 1855, giving 
the annual cutting as 660,604,000 cubic feet and annual growth at 
528,441,000 cubic feet. It was estimated at that time that an excess 
cutting of 132,163,000 cubic feet took place annually. Smce that 
time, the accessible forest areas have been materially increased by 
improved methods of floating. Various estimates have been made 
during the last 20 years and nearly all concluded that considerable 
excess cutting has taken place. If this excess cutting had taken place 
however to such an extent as has been stated, there would probably 
be very little left of the forests of Sweden. Such extreme estimates 
must therefore be considered erroneous. 

The latest estimate of the annual increment was published in 1919, 
from figures of the forest commissions. The following table shows 
for the different districts of Sweden, the productive forest area (public 
and private forests), the annual increment per acre, the total annual 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



61 



increment, the allowance made for waste (top logs, stumps, etc.), the 
net annual increment, and the net annual increment per acre: 



Provinces. 


I'roductive 
forest area. 


Total annual increment. 


Deduc- 
tion for 
waste. 


Net annual increment. 


Norrbotten and Vesterbotten: 
Interior districts (two-flfths 


Acres. 
0, 328, 000 

9,49.5,000 

20,898,000 

17,199,000 
1,425,000 


Cubicfeet 

per acre. 

11.4 

17.9 

28.6 

35.7 
42.8 


Cubic feet. 
72,336,000 

169,537,000 

597,077,000 

614,252,000 
61,103,000 


Per cent. 

I ^^ 

15 

8 
5 


Cubicfeet. 
181,404,000 

507,516,000 

565,112,000 
58,048,000 


Cubicfeei 
per acre. 
\ 8.6 


Lower districts (three-fifths 
of total area) 


I 13.4 


Jemtland.Vesternorrland, Gevle- 
borg, and Kopparberg 


24.3 


Forest area south of above Pro- 
vinces, except Provinces of 
Skane, Halland, and Blekinge. 

Skane, Halland, and Blekinge. . . 


32.9 

40.7 


Total, Sweden 


55,345,000 


* 27.3 


1,514,305,000 


13 


1,312,080,000 


23.7 







The '^ deduction for waste" allows for a waste of 202,225,000 cubic 
feet, which, it is believed, will be utilized to a great extent in the future 
when better transportation facilities and increased markets may be 
expected. 

The report of the forest commissions also makes an estimate, pub- 
lished in 1919 but based on pre-war conditions, in regard to the con- 
sumption of wood in Sweden and the quantities exported, as follows: 

Cubic fee 
per in- 
I . Domestic consumption (farms, household, etc.) : habitant. 

Norrbotten and Vesterbotten 183. (i 

Jemtland, Vesternorrland, Gevleber?, and Kopparberg 171. 2 

South of above Provinces, except Skane, Halland, and Blekinge. . 132. 4 

Skane, Halland, and Blekinge 61. 8 

Average, Sweden 128. 8 

Cubic feet. 

Total domestic consumption 732, 710, 000 

II. Exports of wood 303, 185, 000 

Logs, round and hewn timber (including loss of sunken logs, etc., 

is per cent). '. 54, 598, 000 

Sawn lumber (including sunken logs, shrinkage when drying, 

sawmill waste, etc., 25 per cent) ..\ .' 210, 869, 000 

Semimanufactured (including sunken logs, shrinkage when dry- 
ing, sawmill waste, etc., 30 per cent) 37, 718, 000 

III. Wood used for pulp manufacture and firewood used in manufac- 

ture of pulp 323, 245, 000 

IV. Wood used by mines, in smelting ore, and for charcoal for export. . 198, 630, 000 
V. Wood used for manufacture of wood tar for export 7, 056, 000 

Total consumption 1, 564, 826, 000 

According to the foregoing estimates covering the annual incre- 
ment and annual consumption, there was an excess cutting in Sweden 
immediately before the war of not less than 252,746,000 cubic feet. 

The forest commissions' report also estimates what the Swedish 
forests could yield if they were more rationally managed. The 
estimate, which follows, may be considered as the maximum jaeld in 
the future. 



62 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



Provinces. 


Annual 
increment 
per acre. 


Total annual 
increment. 


Norrbotten and Vesterbotten: 

Interior districts 


Cubicft. 
14.3 
25.0 
35.7 
50.0 
57.2 


Cubic ft. 
90,420,000 
237 352 000 


Loiver districts 


Jemtland, Vestemorrland, Oevleborg, and Kopparberg 


746,346,000 

859,953,000 

81,471,000 


Forest area south of the above Provinces except Skane, Haliand, and Blekinge. 
Skane, Halland, and Blekiage 






Total, Sweden 


36.4 


2,015,542,000 
266,765,000 


Reduction for waste 










1,748,777,000 







Thus, the Swedish forests could produce 436,697,000 cubic feet in 
excess of their present production. Applying the foregoing estimate 
to the pre-war conditions, the Swedish forests would }deld 183,953,000 
cubic feet in excess of the annual cut. 

During the war, it has been estimated that the cut in the Swedish 
forests has exceeded the pre-war cutting and may be estimated at 
1,765,000,000 to 2,118,000,000 cubic feet annually. 

The estimates of the present annual increment may not give the 
correct idea of the conditions of Sweden, as large areas of overmature 
forest lands are found in the northern part of the country, where the 
annual growth is very small. When these overmature forests are 
cleaned up, better growing conditions will be given to the remaining 
stands and this may have a very important effect upon the future 
yield of the Swedish forests. 

It is evident that the consumption of wood in Sweden for domestic 
.purposes, such as households, farms, fuel, etc. must necessarily be 
greatly curtailed and substitutes for wood will be used more exten- 
sively that at the present time. In this way the wood may be used for 
such pm'poses as pulp and lumber and will yield a better profit than 
if it were used for fuel. 

The previously mentioned plans of draining swamp lands must also 
be taken into consideration. Large quantities of timber will be 
produced in these areas when they are reforested. 

With a better understanding of rational forestry and the strict 
enforcement of the new laws, the future supply of wood in Sweden 
wiU be amply safeguarded and the annual increment of the Swedish 
forests will probably be materially increased. 

LOGGING. 

Owing to the fact that Norrland and Dalecarlia, under normal con- 
ditions, produce more than 75 per cent of the lumber for export and 
also because forest operations there are on a large scale, these regions 
will be given particular attention in this chapter. Nearly all the 
operations in southern Sweden are on a small scale and are often 
inefiicient, offering very little interest for a study of standard forest 
operations in Sweden. 

METHODS OF OBTAINING RAW MATERIAL FOR SAWMILLS. 



The larger export sawmills generally have extensive areas of forest 
land but very few mills base their production of lumber on raw 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY Al^D LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 63 

material from their own forest alone. The great majority of the 
mills acquire saw logs from other sources, either from public forests 
or from private forest owners. These purchases are not limited to 
Sweden alone; timber is taken from Finland also in large c[uantities 
and to some extent from Norway, in cases where the floating rivers 
originate in the forest regions of Norway. 

Swedish sawmills own extensive areas of timber land in both Nor- 
way and Finland, but most of the logs taken from these two countries 
are pmxhased from Finnish and Norwegian forest owners, respec- 
tively. In Sweden either the mills may make contracts with the for- 
est owners for a certain quantity of timber marked for cutting or 
they may bid for standing timber in the public forests. 

Many forest owners, and to some extent the State, sell large quanti- 
ties of cut saw logs delivered on the banks of the various waterways 
in Sweden, There are no reliable statistics showing to what extent 
the Swedish sawmills are dependent on purchased logs, but it may be 
estimated roughly that 30 to 40 per cent of the logs used by the export 
mills are taken from their own forests and the remainder are pur- 
chased or cut on other forest lands than their own. 

Years ago the mills sawed only pine, as spruce was considered of 
little or no value and was left in the forests. In some cases, logging 
contracts specified that the party taking these contracts could cut 
spruce at a very small compensation and in many cases no charge 
was made for spruce timber. About 50 years ago the logging con- 
tracts in Norrland generally specified that the cutting was lunited to 
pine trees 9 to 11 inches and up in diameter at 22 feet from the 
ground. Several contracts of this nature were made on the basis of 
from 6 to 10 cents per tree. 

With the advent of the pulp industry, spruce stumpage increased 
rapidly in value and as the supply of merchantable pine timber 
became smaller, the mills started to cut spruce, in spite of its much 
lower value. 

Although the usual procedure for contracting for timber in the 
State forests is to make bids in competition with other mills, the 
Government may make special arrangements in some cases. All 
dealings in Government timber are made public. 

In some districts the competition for timber in the State forests is 
very keen and the minimum prices fixed by the Government may be 
exceeded in some cases by 30 to 75 per cent. However, in extensive 
areas in the northern part of Sweden, the bids are very low, owing to 
the unsatisfactory transportation facilities for saw logs and also to 
the comparatively few sawmill and pulp operators in this part of the 
country. It is claimed that there has sometimes existed an agree- 
ment among the bidders on the timber in the State forests to regulate 
the price of stumpage. This is, however, a matter of much discussion. 
In the other parts of Sweden, where a large number of sawmills and 
pulp mills are in operation, such combinations have been difficult to 
establish, because some one always sees it to his advantage not to ad- 
here to such agreements, thereby breaking the ring. The large per- 
centage of unsold timber offered for sale by the Government can not 
be attributed exclusively to these combinations but is due to the 
unsatisfactory logging conditions in remote districts. 

According to official statistics, the quantities of unsold logs offered 
on the market by the Government, were as foUows from 1911 to 



64 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

1915: 1911, 488,000 trees; 1912, 300,000 trees; 1913, 263,000 trees; 
1914, 679,000 trees; 1915, 596,000 trees. For 1918, the quantitjr was 
estimated at 1,800,000 trees. 

It must be taken into consideration that logging operations were 
carried on with a great deal of difficulty in Sweden during the latter 
part of the war on account of the scarcity of food for the loggers and 
of feed for the horses. This situation may to a certain extent account 
for the quantities of unsold timber being so large. 

The Government has been considering the establishment of saw- 
mills and pulp mills in northern Sweden in order to increase the 
proceeds from the operation of the State forests. It is not be- 
lieved, however, that the Swedish Government wiU enter upon such 
activities to the same extent as the Finnish Government, since 
Swedish lumbermen feel that the Government should not compete 
with them in foreign fields, because the exporters are handicapped 
by heavy taxes, etc. On the other hand, it is certain that the Gov- 
ernment will increase the output of saw logs for sale instead of selling 
standing timber and this step wiU be looked upon with favor by all 
concerned. 

Particularly in the State forests, it has been found risky at times to 
bid on standing timber, because the timber is often rotten and this 
defect may not be discovered before the timber has been cut. By- 
buying saw logs, the purchaser knows exactly for what quality he is 
paying and he takes less chance in this way. 

Logging contracts previous to 1889, were made for a time extending 
even to 50 years, in that year, however, a logging contract was 
limited to 20 years, and in 1905 the limit was changed to 5 years. 

In the private forests, usually more favorably located, the forest 
owners generally obtain the highest value for their timber, as the 
competition is very keen. There may be cases, however, when 
private forest land is surrounded by the property of one forest 
owner, who is practically the only one in a position to log at a reason- 
able cbst. In such circumstances, stumpage values may be much 
below normal. 

Standing timber is pm*chased only after being cruised; this was 
not usually done years ago. Both the seller and the buyer make 
cruisings. 

Logging contracts are similar to those in effect in Finland but ths 
marking of trees for cutting must be made more carefully on account 
of the more stringent laws in Sweden with regard to cutting. 

Many sawmills in northern Sweden in years past made contracts 
with peasants owning timberland for the cutting of all trees above a 
certain dimension. These contracts were frequently made with stipu- 
lations that the peasants should be entitled to cut sufficient timber 
for their own personal use and for the use of their properties. During 
recent years the logging companies have often made amendments in 
these contracts, either by shortening the contract or by arranging to 
have the peasants refrain from cutting timber for their own use, in 
exchange tor compensation in some other form. The value of stump- 
age has gone up to such an extent that it has been found mutually 
advantageous to modify the original contracts. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 






S-Mim%-^ -»/■"* ■■■'^Wl'' 



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Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. 

FIG. 20.— EXCEPTIONALLY FINE STAND OF OAK, SOUTHERN 
SWEDEN. 




Courtesy of State Forest Laborutoo ^i I ' I 

FIG. 21.— CLEAN-CUTTING SYSTEM, LEAVING MOTHER TREES. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 65 
FOREST MANAGEMENT. 

The forests owned by the larger wood-using industries and estates 
are generally well managed and some of them have been under scien- 
tific management for generations. The larger forest owners fre- 
quently prepare detailed maps of their holdings, showing the stands, 
annual increment, previous cuttmg, plans for draining, etc. For the 
best managed forests, plans for cutting are often made 25 to 50 years 
ahead. The owner may come back to the same tracts of land after 
a certain period and find a new crop. Many companies also maintain 
private nurseries. 

The management of the forests is generally placed in the hands of 
trained foresters, who devote their time exclusively to forest manage- 
ment and to logging, floating, etc. Considerable money is also set 
aside for planting, seeding, and draining and the reforestation of 
cut-over territories is not merely an optional matter with the forest 
owner but, as seen from a previous chapter, it is in most cases com- 
pulsory by law. 

In many forests in Sweden it has been noticed that the age for 
cutting saw logs has been reduced from, for mstance, 130 years, 
before rational management was mstituted, to 100 or 105 years. 

It is very noticeable in Sweden that forest o^vners sometimes make 
improvements in their forests without any prospect of obtaining a 
direct financial return during their lifetime. On the other hand, the 
improvements indirectly benefit them, because if, for instance, a 
sawmill company has cut its forests recklessly its stock quoted on the 
exchange will immediately suffer. 

There are great plans m Sweden for drainmg and reforesting 
swamp lands. In connection with the draining and reforestation of 
swamps, the name of Dr. Frans Kempe should be mentioned. Dr. 
Kempe has no doubt accomplished more in this respect than any 
other man in Europe, and thousands and thousands of acres in cen- 
tral Norrland have been drained through his efforts. 

Figure 8 shows a section of a spruce tree cut in central Norrland 
on drained land. Before the area was dramed, the growth showed 
12 annual rings for the first one-fourth inch from the center. After 
the land was drained the trees showed a growth of 14 rings for the 
first inch and 8 rings for the next inch, 5^ rings for the following inch 
and 4 rings per inch for the last two mches before it was cut. It is 
remarkable to see what results have been accomplished in this regard, 
considering the fact that these forests grow in about the same lati- 
tude as Nome in Alaska. Even for southern latitudes this would be 
remarkably quick growth. 

This illustration gives a good idea of the ambitious plans of the 
Swedish forest owners. By draining the swamp lands in northern 
Sweden, it is expected that in time Sweden would be able to grow on 
these areas alone forests ahnost sufficient to supply its present demand. 
It is expected that the Government will take a very keen interest in 
these matters in years to come, provided the increasing revenues 
from the State forests continue. It may be mentioned that large 
areas in Germany and other continental European countries which 
once were swamps and marshes at present produce some of the best 
forest stands in' Europe. 

2092°— 21 5 



66 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Rational forest management has been practiced only by the larger 
private forest owners and the wood-using industries* possessing 
forest lands. It can not be said, on the other hand, that the smaller 
stands, particularly in southern Sweden and the coastal regions of 
Norrland, have been cut in accordance with rational forest manage- 
ment. Therefore strict laws that have been passed recently will 
severely affect the management of the smaller holdings, but the larger 
timber holders will not be materially affected. 

CUTTING SYSTEMS. 

The underlying purpose of all cutting systems in Sweden is to 
make the stands yield the largest possible fuiancial return on the 
capital invested. To accomplish this result, the cutting must be 
conducted along scientific lines. 

In well-managed forests in Sweden, much importance is attached 
to improvement thinnmg, which usually starts when the trees have 
attained the age of 30 to 50 years. Old, defective trees are removed 
and also trees that stand too close to their neighbors. Generally 
speaking, in good stands at least 20 per cent of the trees can be re- 
moved during the first thinning. 

When the stands attain an age of 60 to 90 years, the growth in 
height generally ceases and the cutting is effected with a view of 
givmg better growing conditions for the surromidmg trees so as to 
improve their form and size. Particularly in pine forests, it is nec- 
essary to cut the trees m such a way that sunlight can penetrate the 
tree crowns. This cutting system is not followed m spruce forests, 
where the general rule is that the crowns of the trees must touch each 
other. Cutting of this nature may be repeated every tenth year. 

Durmg the war an acute shortage of coal was experienced in 
Sweden and even as high as $80 per ton was paid for this commodity. 
The Swedish Government therefore had to take steps to obtain wood 
for fuel, and special commissions were appointed for this purpose. 
In one year more than 400,000,000 cubic feet was cut for fuel purposes. 

The system followed was mainly improvement thinning, which 
had a beneficial effect upon many forests whose owners had not paid 
much attention to this cutting system. In one forest region in 
central Norrland it was found, for instance, that the Fuel Commis- 
sion cut about 800 cubic feet per acre (55 cubic meters per hectare) 
without deviatmg from this improvement- thinning system. 

Clean cutting of large areas can not be effected in Sweden on 
account of the law. When clean cutting is practiced it is done only 
on limited areas, 25 to 40 acres, and reforestation is effected by 
planting, seeding, or natural reproduction. In the last case mother 
trees are left on the cut-over area. The number of mother trees 
per acre depends upon local conditions, and the clean-cut areas must 
not be made too large; otherwise the stands may be severely affected. 
Mother trees are not often left on clean-cut areas of spruce forests, 
because they are liable to be blown down or otherwise damaged 
when standing isolated, the reason being that spruce roots do not 
extend very far into the groimd. Reforestation of cut-over spruce 
land, therefore, is nearly always effected by planting or seeding. 

The system of clean cutting is practically limited to even-aged 
stands o? mature forests. Where the mature stands have an under 



4 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 67 

growth of young trees this system can not generally be applied with 
profit. The result of the clean-cutting system is even-aged forests. 

This system has several advantages, among which are the ease 
with which the cut-over areas can be planted and seeded and the 
comparatively small cost of reproduction. The disadvantage of this 
cutting system is that clean-cutting fells many trees that have 
not reached the age of maturity and thereby causes the owner a 
financial loss. 

Small patches of about one-half acre are sometimes clean-cut and 
reproduction is left to nature by seeds from the stands at the edges 
of the clean-cut patches. The forests cut in this way will be many- 
aged, as contrasted with the even-aged stands growing up after 
clean-cutting over larger areas. As the clean-cut areas are very 
small, they are not exposed to winds and the many-aged stands that 
grow up after tliis cutting system has been practiced for some time 
are more resistant to fires, storms, etc. There are also no expenses 
for reproduction. 

Dimension cutting is very miscientific and has no connection with 
rational forest management. Nevertheless this system of cutting is 
commonly practiced in Sweden, particularly in small and poorly 
managed timber holdings. All trees having a larger diameter at 
breast height than is specified as the minimum in the logging instruc- 
tions are cut with no regard to other conditions. It is evident that 
many important rules of forestry are disregarded when this cutting 
system is employed. Mother trees that should be left for the natural 
reproduction of the forests, shelter trees that should protect the 
young stands against the elements, etc., are all cut alike if they are 
of the required size, whereas scrubby growth and defective trees are 
allowed to remain in the forests. When this cutting sj^stem is 
repeated the forest is soon stripped of its stands of merchantable 
timber and the conditions are made extremely unfavorable for 
reproduction. For it is evident that when the natural reproduction 
of the forest is left to abnormal and defective trees, the quality of 
the timber of the new growth must be greatly impaired. In ration- 
ally managed forests, the best trees in the stands are left as mother 
trees, but this is not the case when dimension cutting is practiced. 
Dimension cutting, therefore, is primitive and incompatible with the 
rules of scientific forest management. 

FELLINO THE TREES. 
PLANNING THE SEASON'S CUT. 

Usually all the larger sawmills possessing forest land maintain 
special branches devoted to the management and operation of their 
forests. Before each logging season, the forest o^vner must carefully 
plan the season's work. Tlie plan for cutting may cover a number 
of yeaT-s in advance. During the summer and the early autumn, 
the trees to be cut the following season are marked. The forest 
area to be logged is carefully cruised, logging roads are surveyed, 
obstacles such as stones are blasted, bridges are built, etc. From 
the main logging road, a number of branch roads deviate. The 
laving out of a system of logging roads is very carefully done witli a 
view to eliminating hifis, etc. In southern Sweden, the roads must 



68 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

be made more permanent on account of the lack of snow, but in 
northern Sweden the snow cover makes such steps unnecessary. 

The territory to be logged over is divided into sections, one of 
which is alloted to each crew of loggers, and log cabins, etc., are con- 
structed. The marking of the trees for cutting is left to experts and 
must be done in accordance with the laws in the Province where the 
logging is carried on. The trees are marked with a distinguishing 
brand, of which each mill has one. The trees are marked either at 
breast height only or both at breast height and as close as possible 
to the root. Sometimes logging contracts stipulate that trees shall 
be marked at breast height on opposite sides of the bole. If the 
areas are to be clean cut, the trees are usually'- not marked. The 
person marking the trees is also required, as a rule, to keep an 
account of the number of trees to be cut and their dimensions, in 
order to enable the mill to estimate intelligently the stocks of lumber 
that may be sawn in the near future. 

The logging operations are restricted to the winter months; no 
logging iscarried on during the spring, summer, and autumn, because 
at these times the logs are liable to discolor. The snow greatl}' 
facilitates the transportation of the saw logs, and the logging opera- 
tions generally start in November or December, as soon as the 
ground is frozen and the first snow has fallen. The logging opera- 
tions last three to four months in southern Sweden and six to seven 
months in the northern Provinces. 

The snow cover is very light in southern Sweden and often the 
snow does not stay on the ground for any length of time. The snow 
cover in central and northern Norrland is usually H to 2 feet and in 
northern Norrland, 4 to 6 feet. 

In southern Sweden the logging operations are concentrated along 
the railroad lines, because the transportation of saw logs in the 
rivers is not satisfactory there. In northern Sweden the distance 
from the nearest floating river is seldom more than 5 to 8 miles. 

The cutting and driving of logs are usually given out on contracts. 
These contracts may be based on the number of saw logs, irrespective 
of dimensions, or on the cubical contents of each log. The latter 
seems to be the more satisfactory^ arrangement. 

The sawmill companies may make arrangements with one foreman, 
who signs the contract and who hires his own crew and furnishes 
his own horses and equipment. The company does not take any 
active part in the logging operations outside of supervising from time 
to time the progress of the work. In normal times, however, the 
companies sometimes give assistance to the foreman by maintaining 
roads during the winter, etc. During the war, the difficulty of secur- 
ing horse feed and food supplies made it necessary for many sawmill 
companies to spend large amounts of money to procure these com- 
modities in order to carry on logging operations. 

It is noticeable in Sweden that the large forest owners have made 
an effort to secure a permanent staff of operators in the forests. 
These companies have often rented to loggers, at a nominal rent or 
none at all, farms located in the forests, on condition that the loggers 
place themselves at the disposal of the company during the logging 
operations in the wintertime, provided that the company pays the 
standard wages that could be obtained from other parties in the same 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 69 

locality. This arrangement has given satisfaction to both parties 
concerned and has proved very successful. 

FELLING METHODS. 

The districts most remote from the waterways are logged first. 
Logging is usually suspended when the temperature is lower than 4° 
below zero, because the trees are liable to break in felling. The 
logging methods in Sweden are about the same as those employed in 
Finland and Norway. The character of the country, the relatively 
small stands of timber per acre, and the cutting systems combine 
to make the use of complicated logging machinery very difficult. 
The felling of the trees is done by hand, as no satisfactory tree-felling 
machines have been found. A number of types of drag saws have 
been tried from time to time but there seem to be drawbacks that 
make the use of these machines undesirable. Some machines re- 
quire two men for their operation and in other cases the macliines are 
too heavy to be moved around quickly on account of the snow. In 
most cases the felling of trees by macliines has proved more expensive 
than felling by hand. 

In felling trees saws are now used almost exclusively in Sweden, 
because the waste is less than when felling is done with axes. Usually 
two men operate each saw but in some places only one man does the 
work. In some cases, the one-man saw has a spiral spring attached to 
the end of the saw and fastened to the tree, which greatly facilitates 
the sawing operations. 

In the better managed private forests, the height of the stumps 
does not exceed 3 or 4 inches above the frozen ground (not above 
the snow cover). In order to accomplish this residt the loggers must 
shovel the snow away before cutting. Fines are usually imposed 
for stumps in excess of the stipulated height. 

Particular care is taken not to damage the surrounding young 
forests when trees are felled. If the trees show any traces of decay, 
the loggers must saw off pieces at the butt end from 1 to 2 feet in length 
until the decay is removed. For this work a small compensation 
is often paid. It is evident that by the exercise of care in this respect, 
the cost of floating and handling will be decreased, as it is a loss to 
bring a rotten log to the mill, to incur the same charges for handling 
as sound timber. 

After the tree is felled, it is limbed from the butt toward the top 
and is then barked. The barking is done with a special implement 
shaped like a spade with a sharp edge. Barking is compulsory by 
law in many sections of Sweden but in the northern Provinces the 
law makes certain exceptions. 

There are several reasons for the compulsory barldng of logs. It 
is contended that the accumulation of bark in the floating rivers is 
injurious to the fish, although on this point opinions vary. At any 
rate, during floating the bark loosens and fills up the rivers. For 
the sawmill owner, it is often important to have the logs barked, 
because unbarked logs are liable to accumulate sand, which is in- 
jurious to the sav/ blades in the mill. Furthermore, barked logs 
are more easily handled and prevent an accumulation of refuse at 
the mill. Unbarked logs are liable to tint the lumber, giving it a 
brownish color, which impairs the appearance. The barking of logs 
entails, however, considerable expense, to which there is often strong 



70 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

objection. This increased expense of logging is a handicap to many 
forest owners in remote districts, because it hampers the utilization 
of small-dimension timber. Spruce logs are seldom barked. 

According to Forester W. Ekman, one man can cut, limb, and bark 
the following number of logs of different dimensions, during a day of 
9^ to 10 hom"s: 



Log lengths. 








Top diameter (inches). 








6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


14 


16 


18 


15 feet 


32 
28 
25 
23 
22 
21 
20 


26 
23 
21 
19 
18 
17 
16 


21 
19 
17 
16 
15 
14 
13 


17 
15 
14 
13 
12 
11 
10 


14 
13 
12 
11 
10 
9 
9 


12 
11 
10 
9 
9 
8 
8 


10 
9 

8 
8 

7 
7 
7 


8 
7 
7 
6 
6 
6 
5 


7 
6 
6 
6 
5 
5 
5 


6 


17 feet... 


6 


19 feet 


6 


21 feet 


5 


23 feet 


5 


25feet 


4 


27 feet 


4 







In general, it may be said that in the better stands an average of 
1^ to 2 saw logs from each tree may be obtained. In the coastal and 
mountainous districts, however, one log from each tree may be the 
average. 

CKOSSCUTTING. 

When the tree is limbed and barked, it is crosscut to log lengths. 
This is one of the most important operations in the forest, and special 
expert crosscutters have been used for this purpose in Sweden for a 
number of years in the most efficiently operated forests. Inefficient 
crosscutting methods may cost the company thousands of dollars and 
an ordinary logger might be more or less careless in this respect. 
The extra expense, however, causes many mills to do without the 
special crosscutters. 

The sawing schedules are based on the top diameter. It is there- 
fore necessary to produce such top-diameter dimensions as wiU give 
the best results when the logs are cut into lumber. Special cross- 
cutting tables are made up by the mills, based on the market prices 
of lumber and also taking into consideration the probable future 
trend in the prices of the different widths. The crosscutting is 
effected in accordance with these tables, and the crosscutter and the 
mill superintendent are in constant touch with each other during 
the logging season, in order to obtain an output of the most suitable 
log dimensions. 

The smallest top diameter of saw logs varies a great deal and is 
determined mainly by the cost of logging and floating. On an 
average, saw logs are seldom cut less than 4 to 5 inches in top diame- 
ter; this apphes only in districts where the cost of logging and float- 
ing is moderate. In other districts, the minimum top diameter may 
be 6 inches. The competition from pulp mills may tend to increase 
the minimum top diameter in many instances. 

The remainder of the tree (top logs) is carefully utilized as a rule, 
being cut into props, charcoal logs, or pulp logs of various lengths. 
If the log is crooked, it must be crosscut at the bend, unless 
the mills have special apparatus for sawing crooked lo^s. Efforts 
are also made to crosscut logs in such a way that the clear will be 
separated from the defective, part of the tree, provided the average 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 71 

log lengths will not be impaired by this procedure. The mills that 
classify the lumber into more than three grades are particularly 
careful in this respect. 

If the taper of the log is large, the log lengths are made small 
because in sawing long logs with a large taper the waste is dispro- 
portionately great. 

The log lengths are cut on odd and even feet, giving from 6 to 8 
inches excess to provide for damage during floating. As the lumber 
for export is sold on an average-length basis, no attention is paid to 
obtaining any special standard of log lengths. The most important 
markets for Swedish lumber employing the English measurements, 
the saw logs are cut to Enghsh feet and inches. Logs are seldom 
shorter than 9 to 10 feet; the maximum length varies a great deal 
and is usually governed by the conditions of floating. In most of 
the Swedish rivers the charges for floating long logs are very heavy 
and the timber is liable to break while en route to the mill. There- 
fore, the maximum lengths of logs floated in Swedish rivers may be 
28 to 29 feet. The crosscutter must endeavor to obtain an average 
length of about 18 feet. 

The top diameters are usually cut on the half inch and in some 
cases the most efficient operators crosscut on the quarter-inch diame- 
ter. The top diameters most in demand are as follows: Pine, 8, 8f , 
9i, 10, 11, 13, and ISJ inches; spruce, 7f, 8^, 9f, lOf 12f, and 15 
inches. 

The following is a sample of the instructions for crosscutting logs: 

Minimum top 
Pine in lengths of — • diameter (inches). 

13 to 29 feet 6 

11 to 12 feet 8i 

9 to 10 feet 9 

Spruce in lengths of — 

15 to 29 feet 1 7 

13 to 14 feei 8 

9 to 10 feet ] . gj 

In some districts in Sweden great importance is attached to ob- 
taining long lengths, thereby lessening the cubical contents of the 
lumber obtained when these logs are sawn. These mills have 
special markets for lumber of long lengths, but it is generally con- 
tended that although they obtain an increased price for such stock 
the waste in cutting long lengths in the miU is disproportionately 
large and the increased prices could scarcely make up for loss in 
material. 

It is generally estimated that one crosscutter can take care of the 
output of 8 to 10 loggers. The crosscutter may also be called upon 
to keep an exact account of the number of logs and log dimensions 
cut in order to enable the mills to be posted on the progress of the 
logging operations and to plan the following season's cut of lumber. 

To understand the importance of efiicient crosscutting methods, it 
is necessary to consider the scale of prices of lumber of various 
widths. Some dimensions, 1 1 and 9 inches, for example, are much 
in demand and command higher prices than, for instance, 8 and 10 
mch stock, which is wanted by only a few markets. The following 
example may be given to illustrate the economic loss caused by an 
mefficient system of crosscutting, the values given being in accord- 



72 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AlfD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

ance with the average value of saw logs before the war: Aii average 

Eine tree about 60 feet high and 12 inches in diameter at breast 
eight, with a taper of about 1 inch in 9 feet, may be crosscut as 
follows: 

Alternative!: value. 

1 log 15 feet long and 10 inches at the top $1. 20 

1 log 17 feet long and 7 inches at the top 1. 20 

1 log 17 feet long and 3 inches at the top 1. 20 

Alternative II : 

1 log 25 feet long and 8 inches at the top 95 

1 log 25 feet long and 3 inches at the top 95 

Alternative III: 

1 log 19 feet long and 9 inches at the top 91 

1 log 27 feet long and 4 inches at the top 91 

Thus a loss may ensue from a faulty system of crosscutting of as 
much as 29 cents on one tree, not considering the top log, which is 
used for coal or fuel and which often is of small value. 

In no other country is the system of crosscutting so developed as 
in Sweden. In Russia, for instance, where about the same kinds of 
trees grow, most of the logs are crosscut to about the same lengths, 
the comparative value of the lumber to be sawn from various log 
dimensions not being taken into consideration. 

UTILIZATION OF ALL PARTS OF TREE. 

The efficiency in the utilization of even the smallest top log is sur- 
prising and the utilization is becoming closer and closer each year 
as the cost of stumpage increases and the floating facilities are im- 
proved. In most of the favorably located forests in Sweden, prac- 
tically nothing is left in the forest after cutting. Even the bark, 
branches, and roots are utilized for fuel, tar, etc.^ In some districts, 
bark, branches, etc., are compressed into briquet for fuel. 

During the war a very plose utilization of small top logs was insti- 
tuted. About 40 top logs were made up into a bundle 10 to 11 feet 
long and 15f to 23^ inches in diameter. These bundles are strapped 
with iron wire, for which purpose a special machine has been con- 
structed, costing about $70. Three men can put up 50 bundles per 
day by using this machine and one company alone put up 35,000 
bundles of this material in 1918. The cost of bundlm^ was about 
15 to 25 cents a bundle in 1918-19. The bundles were floated to 
the nearest charcoal plant where this material was manufactured 
into charcoal. One of these bundles may be classified at approxi- 
mately one-fifth of a standard log, and the charge for floatm^ has 
usually been about 10^ cents per bundle, though there was consider- 
able variation. The percentage of sunken bundles was less than one- 
half of 1 per cent. The whole undertaking was so successful that a 
number of operators in Sweden have followed up the success of the 
first trial, which was made in the Dal River. 

It is figured that the forest owners obtained a net profit in 1918 
of approximately 1| cents per cubic foot by selling these bundles to 
the charcoal plants, but in this calculation stumpage has not been 
included. It is difficult, however, to fix any amount for stumpage, as 
these top logs would probably have no value except for this purpose. 

* The roots are either blasted or pulled out of the ground. During the war as high as 20 cents per cable 
Ibot was paid for the roots, based on the measurement of the roots in piles. 



Special Ag-ents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of State Forest LaboniLory, .■Stockholm. 

FIG. 22.— CHOPPING BRANCHES AND WASTE INTO FIREWOOD. 




Courtesy of State Forest Laboratory, Stockholm. 

FIG. 23. — PULLING ROOTS. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of State Korust Laboratory, Stockholm. 

FIG. 24.— BURNING CHARCOAL. 




FIG. 25.— RIGID INSPECTION OF HEIGHT OF STUMPS. 



SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 73 

By disposing of them in this way, the forests are cleaned up and 
waste is turned into profit. 

In no other country in the world, not even in Germany, can small- 
dimension top logs, etc., be utilized to so great an extent as in Sweden. 
This is due to the cheap transportation, both in the forests and from 
the forests to the mill, and to the excellent market that can usually 
be found in Sweden for such stock, which is used for charcoal, pulp,' 
props, etc. Before the war the iron industries alone consumed 
120,000,000 bushels of charcoal, valued at $7,775,000, annually. 

DRIVING. 

The transportation of logs to the nearest waterway is done by 
horses. Only in one or two cases are small logging railroads used in 
central Sweden, where the limited amount of snow greatly hampers 
the transportation by sledges. Recently a company was formed in 
Sweden to put into operation a new mechanical-transportation system 
for saw logs. It appears, however, that this system is the same, in the 
main, as the system used in the United States for transporting logs by 
rail; but it is adapted to Swedish conditions. It is believed that 
the mechanical transportation of saw logs will make good progress 
in Sweden on account of the topographical conditions. The Swedish 
Government is reported to have taken steps to use German army 
trucks for log hauling in the State forests. 

The driving of logs starts as soon as the snow covers the ground in 
sufficient quantities to facilitate sleigh driving. The sleighs used 
vary in construction in the various parts of Sweden. Usually the 
equipment consists of two sleighs connected with a chain. The one 
in front is about 6 feet long and provided with an immovable bar on 
which the logs rest, thereby enabling the driver to make sharp turns. 
The rear sleigh is 7 to 11 feet lon». The load is secured by a special 
binder, now used instead of spikes, which previously were driven 
into the logs in order to fasten the chains. These spikes often broke 
during cold weather and the spike left in the saw log caused a great 
deal of trouble in the sawmills when the saw blade struck the piece 
of steel. 

The logs are generally assembled at one central point along the 
main logging road, where they are loaded on sleighs and driven 
down to the water. The equipment used for hauling the logs from 
the stumps to the assembling point is a small sleigh on which the 
top end of the log is chained, while the remainder of the log is dragged 
on the ground. 

The loads vary considerably in size. According to Forester W. 
Ekman, the average loads in Sweden are the following: Seven-inch 
top-diameter logs, 65 cubic feet per load; 12-inch top-diameter logs, 
80 cubic feet per load; 12-inch top-diameter logs, 92 cubic feet per 
load. 

The number of trips per day depends, of course, upon the distance. 
According to Forester O. Eneroth, the following schedule may be 
considered as normal in Sweden: Up to 1.9 miles, 4 trips per day; 
1.9 miles to 2.5 miles, 3 trips per day; 2.5 miles to 4.4 miles, 2 trips 
per day; 4.4 miles to 10 miles, 1 trip per day. It is impossible, of 
course, to give anything but a rough estimate, as the topographical 
conditions determine the progress of the driving. 



74 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The horses used in forest operations in Sweden are remarkably- 
adapted to logging conditions. They are sturdy and excellently 
trained for the difficult work in the forests. 

When the logs have been taken down to the waterway they are 
piled either on the ice or on the bank and are given a solid foundation 
of two parallel logs placed at right angles to the tiers of the other 
•logs. At least once a week the saw logs are scaled by the company's 
inspector and the logs are provided with a dozen or more brands 
along the entire length, in order to enable the floaters to separate 
them readily according to ownership. 

When saw logs are sold delivered at the river bank, they are often 
measured by members of an organization of measurers established 
by the purchasers of saw logs in order to avoid haphazard purchasing 
methods. Formerly logs were frequently measured in different ways 
in the same district and the buyer would not exactly know what he 
was getting. This system often led to unfair competition among log 
buyers, which the present impartial measuring system was estab- 
lished to eliminate. The cost of measuring of saw logs generally 
varied from one-half to three-fourths cent per log before the war; 
it was 50 to 75 per cent higher in 1918-19. 

Reindeer are used for log hauling to some extent in the northern- 
most parts of Sweden. The reindeer is a comparatively small animal 
but it possesses remarkable strength, and it is generally figured that 
two reindeer are capable of performing the same work in the forests 
as one horse. The average loads may be 30 to 40 cubic feet of logs. 
The reindeer does not possess the endurance of a horse and the dis- 
tance covered in hauling seldom exceeds one to two miles. The 
advantage of using reindeer is that the feed question is easily settled, 
as the reindeer lives on moss and similar vegetation growing in the 
northern regions. Sometimes forest owners hire a herd of reindeer 
to trample the logging roads after a snowfall — an effective and cheap 
way of road building. 

After the logging operations are finished in the spring, the logging 
areas are inspected by the company to see if the logging contracts 
have been carried out properly. Fines for careless cutting, etc., 
are decided upon and final settlement is made with the logging fore- 
men. The logging foremen generally receive an advance of money 
before the logging operations start and part payments on the logging 
contracts are made during logging operations in the winter. 

LABOR AND WAGES. 

In every country there is some occupation in which the inhabi- 
tants have special proficiency, and it does not take a stranger long 
to find out that it is the handling of timber and lumber in which the 
people of Sweden excel. The Swedish loggers are hardy, have great 
endurance, and are very proficient in their work. 

Mention has been made previously of the endeavors of the Swedish 
forest owners to build up a permanent staff of loggers on their tim- 
berlands. Besides these permanent workers, there is always a iar^e 
floating population moving from district to district and engaged m 
logging in the winter, floating in the spring, and farming in the 
summer. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



75 



Working and living conditions in the forest regions in Sweden 
have been generally satisfactory. Good money has been earned by 
the loggers because the cost of living in Sweden was low before the 
war and the loggers were able to save the greater portion of their 
wages. 

According to official statistics, the following wages were paid to 
different kinds of workers in the various districts of Norrland and 
central Sweden in 1913, 1917, and 1918. Conversions here and 
throughout this report have been made at the normal rate of 26.8 
cents to the Swedish crown: 





Fallers. 


Drivers (with horse). 


Districts. 


Average wages per day. 


Increase. 


Average wages per day. 


Increase. 




1913 


1917 


1918 


1913 to 
1918. 


1917 to 
1918. 


1913 


1917 


1918 


1913 to 
1918. 


1917 to 
1918. 


Bergslag 

Gevle-Dala 


$0.83 
1.16 
1.04 
.87 
.87 
.92 
.91 
.91 


$2.04 
2.98 
2.49 
2.42 
2.22 
2.36 
2.79 
2.17 


S2.46 
4. 88 
3.51 
3.38 
3.46 
3.15 
4.00 
3.47 


Per ct. 
195.8 
323. 
237.6 
287.7 
298.2 
243.6 
337.5 

. 280. 1 


Per ct. 
20.2 
63.6 
40.9 
39.5 
56.3 
33.4 
43.5 
60.4 


S2.25 
2.50 
2.16 
1.94 
1.94 
1.78 
1.80 
1.80 


$4.23 
7.32 
6.43 
6.00 
5.98 
5.47 
5.65 
4.90 


$6.22 
12.60 
9.62 
9.27 
9.26 
8.84 
7.96 
'7.83 


Per ct. 
175.8 
402.7 
345.4 
377.2 
376.7 
397.7 
341.2 
334.0 


Per ct. 
46.7 
71.9 
49.9 
54.5 
54.8 
61.9 
41.0 
.59.7 


Central Norrland 

Hemosand . . . 


Umea 


Skelleftea . 


Lower Norrbotten . . 
Upper Norrbotten. . 


Average, Norr- 
land and 
central Swe- 
den 


.96 


2.43 


3.55 


271.4 


46.4 


2.03 


5.71 


8.71 


330.2 


52.4 





The following information is given in regard to the wages in various 
districts of southern Sweden in 1918: 



Districts. 


FaUers. 


Drivers 
(with 
horse). 


Districts. 


Fallers. 


Drivers 
(with 
horse). 


Sodra 


$1.95 
2.22 


$5.33 
5.78 


Vestra 


$1.87 
2.20 


$5.63 
5 53 


Smaland 


Ostra . . . 









It is thereby seen that southern Sweden had considerably lower 
wages than northern Sweden, but the logging operations are not 
important in these districts. Cases were known in districts of 
southern Norrland where as high as $20 to $22 per day was paid in 
1918 to saw-log drivers with horse. 

In southern Sweden the low wages may be explained to a great 
extent by the fact that the loggers are more permanent employees 
than in northern Sweden and, besides their wages, these people obtain 
other benefits, such as the use of farms and other properties at very 
low rent. 

It may be of interest to consider the statement following covering 
the cost of the necessary food supplies per man (about 4,300 calories 
per day) in the forest regions of central Sweden during 1914 and 
1918-19. 



76 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



Articles. 



2. 2 pounds margarin . . 
4. 4 pounds rye bread. . 

1. 1 poimds salt pork . . 

2. 2 pounds wheat flour 
2. 2 pounds oatmeal . . . 
1. 1 pounds sugar 



1913-14 


1918-19 


§0.40 


(a) 


.24 


SO. 54 


.19 


$0.80- 1.07 


.10 


• .13 


.15 


(») 


.10 


.13 



Articles. 



0. 2 pounds coffee 

1. 1 pounds dried fruit 

Tobacco, etc 

14. 5 pounds (4,300 calo- 
ries per day) 



1913-14 



$0.05 
.27 
.40 



19ia-19 



C) 



0.2O 
.80 



a Usually not obtainable. 



6 Not obtainable. 



Besides these articles, the loggers generally brought with them 
from home different farm products, such as milk. 

The prices of hay and oats during the same periods were as follows : 
Hay, 1 to 1.3 cents per pound in 1913-14 and 7.3 to 8.5 cents in 
1918-19; oats, 2.2 to 2.7 cents per pound in 1913-14 and 9.7 to 14.6 
cents in 1918-19. The prices for hay and oats are not in accordance 
with the maximum prices fixed by the Government; but all over 
Sweden only limited quantities were available at the Government 
rates. Many people sold both food and feed stuffs at higher prices, 
in spite of the energetic efforts on the part of the Government to 
check these practices. 

The importance of the forest to the Swedish nation was particu- 
larly manifested during the war, when Swedish scientists produced 
a feed substitute made of wood pulp. It is said that this substitute 
horse feed enabled the loggers to continue logging operations. 



COST OF LOGGING. 

To obtain an average figure of the cost of logging covering the 
whole country is almost impossible because conditions differ in the 
various sections. The following statement, compiled by Prof. G. 
Lundberg, gives the index numbers showing the relative cost of 
logging for logs of different top diameters, in most districts, if the 
8-inch top diameter is taken as the basis (1.00) : 



Operations. 


Top diameter (inches). 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Felling, barking, and limbing 

Driving, average haul, 2 to 2h miles 


1.41 
1.44 


1.20 

1.20 


1.09 
1.12 


1.00 
1.00 


0.93 
.90 


0.87 
.82 


0.82 
.76 


0.78 
.71 


0.74 

.07 


0.70 
.64 


0.67 
.62 



The following detailed statement of the cost of logging, per cubic 
foot, during 1913-14, 1917-18, and 1918-19, in a district of southern 
Norrland is believed to be representative of standard logging opera- 
tions in the principal districts of Sweden. The variations between 
this district and certain other districts in Sweden may be due largely 
to special local conditions. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 77 



Items. 



1913-14 



1917-lS 



1918-19 



Cutting (based on average logs 8 inches at top, 17 feet long, limbing, bark- 
ing, and crosscutting) 

Transportation (driving logs to waterway, average 2 trips per day) 

Total 

Overhead charges and general expenses: 

Marking trees for cutting and log scaling at river bank 

Surveying 

Supervision of logging 

Road-construction camps 

Inspection after logging 

Liability insurance 

Dumping logs into river 

Total 

Stimipage 

Grand total cost of getting logs to river bank 



Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


0.880 


1.870 


2.250 


1.550 


4.230 


5.110 


2.430 


6.100 


7.360 


.080 


.100 


.147 


.040 


.050 


.059 


.080 


.182 


.201 


.080 


.160 


-■201 


.003 


.013 


.016 


.013 


.016 


.016 


.003 


.067 


.080 


.299 


.588 


.720 


4.290 


9.657 


10.440 



7.019 



18. 520 



AVERAGE LOG DIMENSIONS IN DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



When the lumber export trade started on a large scale a little more 
than half a century ago, there were large areas of virgin forests in 
Norrland. During the first years of logging in this region no trees 
yielding logs less than 12 inches in top diameter were cut. Since 
that time, however, the saw-log dimensions have been steadily de- 
creasing as the prices of stumpage have advanced. 

The following schedule gives the result of an investigation of the 
present average saw-log dimensions covering many standard opera- 
tions in different parts of Sweden: 



Districts. 


Average 

top 
diameter. 


Average 
length. 


Disjtricts. 


Average 

top 
diameter. 


Average 
length. 


Northern Norrland: 

Haparanda 


Inches. 
\ 8i-8i 
} 7 7i 


Feet. 
1S-18J 

17-18 


Central Norrland: 

Hemosand 


Inches. 
} 7J-7J 

1 » 

7 -8 


Feet. 


Lulea 


Sundsvall 


18J-19J 


Pitea 


Southern Norrland: 

Hudiksvall .. . 




Skelleftea 




Umea 




17i 


Ornskoldsvik 


Gevle 






West coast 


15-165 









An investigation in several of the principal logging districts of 
Norrland gives the following results in regard to the percentages of 
pine and spruce saw logs of various top dimensions: 5 to 6 inches, 
27 per cent; 6 to 7 inches, 20 per cent; 7 to 8 inches, 17 per cent; 
8 to 9 inches, 13 per cent; 9 to 10 inches, 14 per cent; 10 to 11 
inches, 4 per cent; 11 to 12 inches, 3 per cent; 12 to 13 inches, 
2 per cent. 

In four districts in southern Norrland it was found that the per- 
centages of pine and spruce logs of different lengths were as follows : 
Spruce in lengths of 10 to 13 feet, 7 per cent; in lengths of 14 to 21 
feet, 88 per cent; and in lengths of 22 to 29 feet, 5 per cent; pine in 
corresponding lengths, 18, 71, and 11 per cent, respectively. 

It is difficult to obtain a satisfactory statement covering the logs cut 
in any particular district, because these statistics have been com- 
piled at the mills and nearly all the districts in Norrland take logs 
from adjacent districts and even from Finland. 



78 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

In regard to the log dimensions in southern Sweden outside the 
west-coast district, it is impossible to give an accurate idea of the 
average dimensions, because the logs are cut by thousands of small 
operators, usually without regard to obtaining the most profitable log 
dimensions. The lengths are shorter in southern Sweden than in the 
other parts of the country; probably most of the logs are 14 to 16 
feet long. They are seldom longer on account of the difficulty of 
transportation. Moreover, southern Sweden produces most of the 
lumber exported to the Danish market, which prefers lengths of 12, 
13, 14, and 15 feet. 

The dimensions of saw logs have been on the decline for years as 
the virgin forests are gradually being cut out. The following state- 
ment from some of the largest operations in Norrland gives an idea 
of the decrease of log dimensions from 1907 to 1917: 



Years. Average dimensions. 

1907 ■ 8 inches by 19f feet. 

1908 8i inches by 20 feet. 

1909 7| inches by 19i feet. 

1910 71 inches by 19} feet. 

1911 7| inches by 19| feet. 

1912 8 inches by 19i feet. 



Years. Average dimensions. 

1913 8 inches by 18^ feet. 

1914 8i inches by 18| feet. 

1915 8| inches by 18i feet. 

1916 8 inches by 18} feet. 

1917 8i inches by 18| feet. 



Many sawmills in Norrland take considerable quantities of saw logs 
from Finland. The Swedish miUs often possess timber holdings m 
northern Finland, but most of the logs are contracted for from the 
Finnish State forests. As the Furnish timber is usually cut from vir- 
gin forests, it enables the Swedish mills to complete their stock lists 
with wide stock cut from the Finnish logs and thereby to enhance 
the value of the whole production of the Swedish mills. The Fmnish 
timber is taken in whole tree lengths and rafted across the Gulf of 
Bothnia to Swedish ports. Not only the ports on the northern shores 
of the Gulf of Bothnia take Finnish timber, but even ports in central 
Norrland have for a, long time contracted for large quantities of 
Finnish logs. This competition in saw timber is disliked by the 
Finnish sawmill operators but the Swedish sawmills usually can pay 
higher prices for saw timber than the Finnish mills, because the 
Swedish sawmills cut the lumber with a larger percentage of wane 
and can utilize the waste material to better advantage. The Fin- 
nish timber, however, sometimes shows decay and other defects. 
Energetic efforts are being made in Finland to check this exportation 
of saw logs to Sweden. 

PRICES OF SAW LOGS. 



The Swedish sawmills find it to their advantage to equalize their 
production of lumber by purchasing timber from other forests than 
their own. The competition usually is not only among the sawmills 
but also between pulp mills and sawmills. The base prices on saw logs 
delivered at the waterways are often stipulated by the local branches 
of the Swedish Exporters' Association, with a view to bringing about 
fairer methods in the purchase of saw logs. Although the mms may 
agree in regard to a certain maximum increase on these base prices, 
they have not been so successful in cooperating to purchase saw logs 
as in cooperating to sell lumber for export. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 79 

The base prices are generally fixed for logs delivered at a certain 
point on the main floating river. The price for logs delivered at 
other points is arrived at by deducting the difference in the floating 
charges between the two points. The buying of saw logs always 
entails a certain amount of risk to the sawmills because they are 
unable to teU what prices they may obtain for the lumber cut from 
these logs, as it nearly always takes from one to two and a hah years 
for the saw logs to be turned into lumber for shipment. 

At the time the purchase is made, an advance of about 10 per cent 
of the contract price is made and the balance is paid either in install- 
ments or upon delivery. 

As the prices of cut saw logs wiU give a better idea of the value of 
the raw material in Sweden than a statement of the stumpage values 
with the cost of logging and floating, special attention will be given 
the matter of prices of saw logs. 

The following table, compfled by Forester Ortenblad, shows the 
advance in the price of saw logs of different top diameters in the 
Indal River district, from 1855 to 1905. The prices are quoted per 
standard log 21 feet long: 



Top diameters. 


1855 


1865 


1870 


1874 


1875 


1880 


1885 


1890 


1895 


1900 


1905 


12 inches 


SO. 39 
.09 
.07 


$0.47 
.32 
.17 


$0. 54 
.43 
.32 
.19 
.13 


SI. 20 

1.07 

.94 

.80 

.54 


SO. 67 
..54 
.40 
.27 
.13 


SO. S6 
.72 
.59 
.46 
.21 


$0.95 
.82 
.68 
.44 
.24 


SI. 05 
.91 
.79 

.52 
.32 
.17 


$1.18 
.98 
.79 
.54 
.34 
.20 


$1.69 
1.26 
.96 
.70 
.43 
.28 
.17 
.15 
.09 


$1.74 


11 inches 


1.41 




1.13 


9 inches 


.84 








.56 








! .34 


















.17 






















.15 















































This table is especially interesting because it shows that only logs 
10 inches and more in top diameter were cut up to 1870. From that 
time to 1890 no logs less 8 inches in diameter were sold and from 1900 
saw logs with top diameters down to 4 inches were considered as com- 
mercial sizes. This top-diameter Umit has not been lowered at the 
present time. 

It is difficult to tabulate the statistics of cost of saw logs in such a 
way that they can be compared, because the methods of measurement 
in the different districts vary considerably and the cost of floating 
also is a factor. If the logs are delivered at the upper course of the 
river, the price must be lower than if they are delivered close to the 
mills. The figures in the table following, referring to different dis- 
tricts, can not be compared with one another without taking into con- 
sideration the cost of floating, but they may separately indicate the 
increase in cost during the last few years. 

The table following shows the prices of saw logs per cubic foot, 
dehvered on the main floating river in various districts of Sweden 
for specified years, together with the percentage of increase each 
year over a stated price basis for each district. A standard pine 
log 8 inches in top diameter and 17 feet in length has been considered 
in making these calculations, the average contents being 5.93 cubic 
feet, based on top-diameter measurement. 

The prices for spruce logs were in some cases on a par with those 
on pine and in other cases were somewhat lower or higher, according 
to circumstances. 



80 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE.' 



Districts and years. 


Price per 
cubic foot. 


Increase. 


Districts and years. 


Price per 
cubic foot. 


Increase. 


Lulea (basis, per log, 27.9 
cents): 
1913 


Cents. 

6.4 
9.1 
10.0 

7.8 
7.8 
9.1 
13.0 
15.6 

9.1 
10.0 

9.6 
11.5 
17.0 
23.2 
19.3 

6.8 
7.1 


Per cent. 

35 
95 
110 

50 
50 
75 
150 
200 

140 
165 
150 
200 
350 
500 
400 

10 
15 


Hudiksvall (basis, per log, 
36.2 cents for 1913 and 1914 
and 34.8 cent,s for later 
years)— Continued. 
1915 


Cents. 

7.3 
8.8 
14.9 
14.9 

14.8 
14.8 
19.0 
19.0 

8.5 
8.5 
11.1 
14.8 
20.0 
23.2 
33.9 


Per cent. 


1917.. ..• 




1918.. . .. 


25 


Skelleftea (basis, per log, 30.8 


1916 


50 


cents) : 


1917 


150 


1914 


1918.. .. . 


150 


1915 


Dalecarlia (basis, per log, 43. 1 

cents): 
1914.. 




1916 




1917 


100 


1918 


1915.. 


100 


Hernosand (basis, per log, 22.8 


1916 


160 


cents): 


1917 


160 


1913 


Klar River (basis, per log, 41.3 
cents): 
1913 . 




1914 




1915 


20 


1916 


1914.. 


20 


1917 


1915 . 


60 


1918 


1916 . . 


110 


1919 


1917 . 


185 


Hudiksvall (basis, per log, 36.2 


1918 


230 


cents for 1913 and 1914 and 


1919 . . 


385 


34.8 cents for later years) : 
1913 






1914.. 









. A sawmill company in the Angermann River district reports that 
the following average prices in cents per cubic foot, had oeen paid 
for saw logs from 1907 to 1917: 1907, 7.2 cents; 1908, 8.5; 1909, 
7.9; 1910, 8.7; 1911, 8.4; 1912, 7.9; 1913, 9.0; 1914, 9.0; 1915, 
8.2; 1916, 10.7; 1917, 12.5. These prices, however, may be con- 
sidered somewhat below the prices usually paid by other companies. 
In other districts of central Norrland, the following prices were 
ruling for saw logs delivered at the mills, including floating: 1909, 

7 cents per cubic foot; 1913, 8 cents per cubic foot; 1915, 9 cents 
per cubic foot; 1916, 11 cents per cubic foot; 1917, 15 cents per 
cubic foot. 

When the prices of saw logs in one of these districts are compared 
for 1903 and 1913, the amount of increase in the latter year varies 
greatly in the different dimensions, as follows: 6 inches, 71 per cent 
increase; 7 inches, 50 per cent; 8 inches, 40 per cent; 9 inches, 27 
per cent; 10 inches 14 per cent; 11 inches, 9 per cent; 12 inches, 

8 per cent. The increase of the price of logs of small-top diameter 
was due to the heavy demand for these logs by the pulp mills. 

In order to indicate how the top diameter effects the price per 
cubic foot, the following statement, showing prices per cubic foot for 
pine logs of different top diameters and different lengths, is given, 
delivered at Granvag (sorting basin), Hernosand district, in 1913: 



Top diameters. 


15 feet. 


17 feet. 


19 feet. 


21 feet. 


23 feet. 


25 feet. 


27 feet. 


5inches 


Cents. 

5.0 

5.7 

6.7 

8.3 

9.6 

12.3 

14.2 

13.0 

14.0 

12.5 

12.7 

12.8 

11.6 

11.3 


Cents. 

5.7 

6.0 

8.1 

9.6 

10.7 

13.0 

14.9 

13.8 

13.9 

12.9 

12.8 

13.1 

11.9 

11.3 


Cents. 

6.0 

7.1 

8.6 

10.1 

10.8 

13.3 

15.5 

14.3 

14.5 

13.2 

13.0 

13.1 

12.1 

11.8 


Cents. 

6.3 

7.4 

9.2 

10.5 

10.8 

12.2 

15.9 

14.6 

14.7 

13.4 

13.4 

13.1 

12.1 

11.9 


Cents. 

6.4 

8.2 

9.2 

10.8 

11.2 

13.6 

16.3 

15.2 

15.0 

13.3 

13.6 

13.4 

12.3 

12.0 


Cents. 

6.9 

8.9 

9.7 

11.1 

11.8 

14.0 

16.6 

15.3 

15.2 

14.0 

13.6 

13.5 

12.5 

12.1 


Cents. 
7 2 


Cinches 


9 5 


7inches 


9 8 


8inches 


11 4 


9inches 


12.3 


lOinches 


14 3 


llinches 


17 5 


12inches 


15.3 


13inches 


15.4 


14inches 


14.3 


15inches 


13.8 


16 inches 

17 inches 

ISinches 


13.6 
12.6 
12.3 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




,FIG. 26.— DRIVING LOGS. 




FIG. 27.— LOGGING CAMP. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 28.— CROSSCUTTING, BARKING, AND CUTTING OFF ROTTEN SECTION 

OF LOG. 




FIG. 29.— LOGS PILED ON RIVER BANK. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 81 

Spruce logs cost 10 to 15 per cent less than pine. 

Tne following table shows the comparative prices per cubic foot, in 
1914 and 1918, of 19-foot pine logs of different top diameters, deliv- 
ered on the main floating river in the Skelleftea district of the upper 
gulf region : 



Top diameters. 


1914 


1918 


Top diameters. 


1914 


1918 




Cents. 
6.0 
6.0 
6.0 
6.4 
7.6 
8.0 
8.4 
8.4 
9.6 
10.5 


Cents. 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
12.9 
15.3 
16.1 
16.9 
16.9 
19.3 
20.9 


10 inches 


Cents. 
11.3 
11.3 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 
12.1 

n.3 

11.3 
10.9 


Cents. 
22.5 




lOJ inches 


22.5 






24.1 




12i nches 


24.1 




13i nches 


24.1 




141 nches 


24.1 






24.1 


gjinches 


16i nches 


22.5 


9inches 


17inches 


22.5 




18 i nches 


21.7 









The prices vary a great deal in the different districts. Where 
pulp mills are bidding for timber, the prices of the smaller log dimen- 
sions are usually higher in proportion. The average cost of floating 
to the mill in the Skelleftea district was three-fourths of 1 cent per 
cubic foot in 1914 and IJ cents in 1917. 

From the foregoing table it is noticeable that the value of logs 
increases as the top diameters increase from 5 to 1 1 inches ; but logs 
11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 inches in top diameter are quoted at the same 
price, while logs 16 and 17 inches in top diameter are quoted at a 
lower price and there is a further decrease with logs 18 inches 
in top diameter. This decrease in the value of the heavy logs is due 
to the fact that they are cut from overmature trees, which often 
show serious defects when sawn. 

The following table shows the prices per cubic foot obtained for 
pine saw logs of different top diameters cut in the State forests in 
different districts dm"ing 1913, 1915, and 1917: 



Districts. 


1913 


1915 


1917 


7 
inches. 


9 
inches. 


11 
inches. 


13 
inches. 


7 
inches. 


9 
inches. 


11 
inches. 


13 
inches. 


7 
inches. 


9 
inches. 


11 
inches. 


13 
inches. 


Lulea 


Cents. 
5.6 
7.2 
7.2 
10.7 


Cents. 
7.5 
9.4 
9.4 
12.1 


Cents. 
9.6 
12.3 
12.3 
13.4 


Cents. 
10.2 
13.1 
12.3 
13.4 


Cents. 
7.5' 
7.8 
9.6 
10.5 


Cents. 
9.1 
10.7 
12.3 
12.6 


Cents. 
12.9 
13.4 
16.1 
14.5 


Cents. 
12.9 
13.4 
16.1 
14.5 


Cents. 
11.3 
12.6 
15.3 
21.4 


Cents. 
11.3 
15.8 
18.8 
24.1 


Cents. 
11.3 
22.8 
21.4 
26.8 


Cents. 
13.1 


Umea 


21.4 


Gevle-Dala 


22.8 







It is understood that the prices of saw logs have already reached 
their climax and that they have decreased in most of the districts 
in Sweden. When the prices of saw logs are high, the forest owners 
naturally endeavor to cut as much in their own forests as possible. 

FLOATING. 

No other country in the world has such favorable conditions for 
cheap transportation of saw logs from the forest to the mill as 
Sweden. The entire coimtry is virtually honeycombed with various 
2092°— 21 6 



82 SWEDISH LUMBER USTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

water systems, which offer splendid facilities for the floating of 
timber. Timber has been floated for centuries in Sweden, but the 
floating was not regulated in the modern sense of the word until 
about 50 or 60 years ago. 

It is difficult to ascertain with certainty at what time log floating 
was started in Sweden, but there are indications that it was as early 
as the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when mining was conducted 
on a large scale. The first governmental regulation in regard to 
floating w^as issued in 1551, and in 1674 floating on a large scale was 
recorded in the Dal River. Until 1809 the floating of timber had 
been carried on separately by individual log owners, but in that 
year the first floating association was established on the Klar River, 
which empties into Lake Wenner. The present floating system in 
Sweden was regulated by law in 1880. 

Important improvements have been made in the Swedish rivers 
to make them suitable for floating; up to the outbreak of the war it 
was roughly estimated that at least $40,000,000 had been spent for 
such purposes, of which the Government had contributed approxi- 
mately $600,000. Private enterprises have thus taken the most 
active part in this work, while the Government assistance has con- 
sisted mainly in making laws that would enable the log o^vner to use 
the rivers for floating timber without being hampered by private 
interests having property on the river banks. 

At present, the total length of all rivers suitable for floating in 
Sweden is estimated at 18,600 miles. Immediately before the war, 
it was estimated that about 85,000,000 logs were floated in these 
rivers annually and of this quantity approximately 85 per cent were 
floated in the rivers of Norrland and Dalecarlia. 

FLOATING-RIVER SYSTEMS. 

The principal floating rivers in Norrland and central Sweden are 
designated on figure 30. There is hardly any forest region in those 
parts of Sweden more than 6 to 10 miles from the nearest floating 
river. 

The rivers in northern Sweden run from the mountainous regions 
on the Norwegian border in a southeasterly direction,' emptying into 
the Gulf of Bothnia. Some rivers originate in Norway, the most im- 
portant being the Klar. The principal floating rivers in Sweden are 
found in northern and central Sweden, from the Finnish border to 
the mouth of the Dal River, a distance of about 470 miles. 

According to an estimate made by Otto Hells trom, a well-known 
Swedish lumber expert, the table following shows the area of pro- 
ductive forest regions bordering the principal Swedish floating rivers, 
and also the total lengths of these rivers and their tributaries suitable 
for floating. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 83 




afFor^/ffn *nrf Opmesfic Commerce. 



Fig. 30. 



84 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



Floating-river systems. 



Kalix, including Upper 

Tomea and Tarendo 

Vitan 

Ranea 

Lulea 

Alteran 

Pitea 

Aby 

Byske 

Skelleftea 

Burea 

Ricklean 

Dalkarlsan. ., 

Sevaran 

Tavlean 

Umea 

Hornean 



Adjacent 
productive 
forest area. 



Acres. 

2,965,000 

82,000 

667,000 

2,224,000 

82,000 

1,359,000 

225,000 

618,000 

1,606,000 

173, 000 

356,000 

54,000 

173,000 

67,000 

3,262,000 

62,000 



Length of 
floating 
rivers, 

includmg 
tributa- 
ries. 



Miles. 

1,142 

39 
326 
785 

30 
616 
123 
382 
985 
117 
221 

32 
148 

57 
1.101 

55 



Floating-river systems . 



Ore 

Leduan 

Logde 

Gidea and Husum 

Mo 

Angermann 

Indal 

Ljungan 

Harraangersan 

Delangersan 

Ljusne 

Skerian 

Dal 

Klar 

Total 



Adjacent 
productive 
forest area. 



Acres. 

531,000 

54,000 

272,000 

717,000 

420,000 

4,201,000 

3,163,000 

1,878,000 

205,000 

321,000 

2,842,000 

64,000 

4,670,000 

1,878,000 



35,191,000 



Length of 
floating 
rivers , 

including 
tributa- 



Miles. 

329 

25 

160 

468 

•290 

2,088 

1,156 

942 

124 

95 

1,212 

12 

1,620 

746 



15,426 



Some of the rivers mentioned originate in Norway and the total 
area of productive forests bordering them in Norwegian territory- 
is about 692,000 acres. This figure has already been included in the 
estimate given in the table. 

In southern Sweden the rivers are generally short and many of the 
waterfalls have been harnessed or the rivers otherwise utilized by 
industries. This utilization materially hampers the facilities _ for 
the floating of logs. Practically the only important floating-river 
system running through southern Sweden is that of the BQar and 
Gota Rivers. 

Southern Sweden can be left out of consideration almost entirely, 
because floating is carried on there in an inefficient way and on a 
small scale. 

In Norrland, north of the Dal River, there are about 60 floating 
rivers of any importance, all emptying into the Gulf of Bothnia. Of 
these rivers, 11 are more than 185 miles in length, 9 are 60 to 125 
miles, 17 are 30 to 60 miles, and 24 are less than 30 miles. It is of 
great importance to the floating in northern Sweden that the rivers 
run parallel without joining in the lower course. If they came 
together there would be a terriflc jam of logs at this part of the river 
during the floating season. The descent, usually 5 to 11 feet per 
mile, is very suitable for floating purposes. 

The foUowing table shows the length and the fall per mile of some 
of the principal rivers in Sweden : 



Rivers. 



Tornea River 

Kalix 

Lulea 

Pitea 

Skelleftea 

Umea 



Length. 



Miles. 
233 
208 
193 
191 
205 
237 



Fall per 
mile. 



Feet. 
4.9 
7.9 
9.8 
11.1 
7 9 
6.6 



Angermann 

Indal 

Ljungan. .. 

Ljusne 

East Dal... 
Klar 



Length. 



Miles. 
242 
196 
168 
230 
283 
228 



Fall per 
mile. 



Feet. 
8.2 
8.5 
11.1 
9.0 
5.5 
4.8 



Comparmg the fall in the Swedish rivers with that of the rivers, for 
instance, in northern Russia and" other parts of Europe,- it is evident 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 85 

that Swedish rivers have a great advantage, because the fall is 
sufficient to carry the logs without any mechanical assistance. In 
many other countries it is necessary to tow the logs for hundreds of 
miles at great expense. 

The percentage of lakes in the Swedish floating systems varies be- 
tween 3.4 and 12.7 per cent. The lakes have a beneficial influence 
on the floating operations, because they act as reservoirs for the 
water in the sprmg, thereby insuring a more evenly distributed 
supply. Furthermore, these lakes afford excellent facilities for 
storing logs. The same good conditions for log storage are fomid at 
the mouths of the rivers that enter the Gulf of Bothnia, because the 
tide is not strong enough to cause any disturbance. 

It is fortunate that in northern Sweden the harnessing of water- 
falls has not been taken up before the rivers were regulated for float- 
ing. At present this harnessing of waterfalls can be done with due 
regard to floating conditions. 

The river beds of the northern Swedish rivers are deep and the 
banks are generally high. Thus inundations do not occur frequently — 
a fortunate condition for the lumberman, as such floods are liable to 
scatter the logs and cause considerable damage. 

In the rivers in northern Sweden the water stand is at its maxi- 
mum during the spring and summer, while in southern Sweden the 
water stand is at its lowest during the summer. For this reason the 
Swedish rivers in the north are of better service in floating logs than 
in southern Sweden, since logging operations are carried on during the 
winter and the logs are floated during the spring and summer. The 
floating in northern Sweden can be carried on from the time the 
Gulf of Bothnia is free from ice, which is generally at the middle or 
end of May, until the beginning or middle of November. The ice 
generally covers the rivers 150 to 200 days durmg the year; it melts 
first at the mouth and later toward the source. This is of the greatest 
importance, because thus the lower course of the river is the first to be 
clear of obstructions, so that lo^ jams are avoided. 

The same conditions apply m Noi-way, but few other European 
countries have the same favorable floating conditions. 

ORGANIZATION OF FLOATING. 

The floating in northern Sweden particularly is regulated in a very 
efficient way. About half a century ago each mill floated its own 
logs independently of other mills, but this system was very expensive, 
as comparatively few improvements could be made in the rivers by 
each individual company. A change in this system was effected a 
few decades a^o, and the present system of floating is based on the 
close cooperation of the mills having saw logs to be floated in the 
same rivers. 

The Swedish laws governing the waterways provide that if log 
owners deem it necessary they can have any river declared by the 
Government as open to public floating; but in order to take this step, 
it is necessary to prove that the river mil be of public use and that 
the cost of improvements will not be so excessive that the importance 
of the river for floating would be materially reduced. Only after the 
Government has declared the river to be opened as a public floating 
river can the owners of the land on both sides of the river be forced 



86 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

to consent to have logs floated through their property. Accordmg 
to Swedish laws, the landowner on the bank of a river owns part of 
the river adjacent to his property. 

Before the river is open to public use, all accounts, plans, and 
estimates for the proposed operation of the floating river must be ap- 
proved and verified by the Government. Very strict regulations 
govern the division of the expenses for improvements, etc., between 
the interested jjarties. On the capital invested in improvements of 
the rivers, etc., it is allowed to charge from 5 to IQ per cent interest, 
including a certain, percentage of risk. As a rule, the operation of a 
floating river is too risky and too large an undertaking for any one 
individual and it is therefore undertaken by an association formed 
of all the log owners having logs to be floated in the same river. If 
the logs floated during any one year should be less than the estimate 
made in advance, the money paid in beforehand for the improve- 
ments, the upkeep, and the operation of the floating river is not re- 
turned. This risk is supposed to be covered by the 5 to 10 per cent 
charge for mterest and risk, which represents the only possible 
profit derived from the money invested. The accounts are carefully 
audited by Government officials. The charges for depreciation must 
not extend through more than 20 years, and as soon as the improve- 
ments have been amortized no charges of any kind can be made for 
the use of the river, but those who use the river for floating must keep 
up the improvements, effect the necessary repairs, etc. 

The members of the floating association are jointly responsible for 
damage done to property by the logs in floating. In order to divide 
the cost of floatmg equally among the members, the rivers are di- 
vided into a great many districts, each of which has a special tariff 
per log. 

It is very interesting to consider the difference between the opera- 
tion of a floating-river association and that of any other transporta- 
tion company, because the profit derived from the operation of the 
floating river is returned directly to the members of the association, 
and no dividends are paid except legitimate charges for interest and 
risk such as are allowed by law. 

It has been the intention of the Government to regulate the cost of 
floating in such a way that it would be of real benefit to the public 
and not a means of making money. In other words, the floating 
rivers are considered so essential to the welfare of the nation that 
they are classed with other means of transportation and communica- 
tion, such as State railroads, telegraph and telephone, and mail. 

There are at present about 270 floating associations in Sweden, of 
which 25 or 30 are important. There are about half a dozen small 
floating associations in southern Sweden, but none of any consequence. 
The floating is sometimes undertaken by different associations for 
the main river and, for the tributary rivers, and it is difficult for all 
the associations in the same river system to cooperate in floating. It 
must be borne in mind that at times floating must be rushed during 
the few weeks of the sprmg flood, and if there is a lack of cooperation 
in the floating of timber between the different districts, the result is 
often a mix-up of logs and the formation of log jams. The tendency 
is for the larger associations to absorb the smaller associations in the 
tributary rivers. Of all the floating in Sweden more than 70 per 
cent is effected by associations. The balance is carried on by private 
individuals, mainly on tributary rivers. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 87 
IMPROVEMENT OF FLOATING RIVERS. 

It is evident that if the rivers can be improved to make them 
better suited for floating, the time required for floating logs will be 
materially reduced. Furthermore, the labor charges for floating will 
be decreased and also the percentage of sunken logs. On account 
of the excellent improvements in the Swedish rivers, the floating 
seldom extends during more than one season. Only in rare cases, 
when the logs are taken from districts close to the Norwegian border, 
may it require two years to bring them down to the shore of the 
Gulf of Bothnia. 

The percentage of sunken logs varies greatly in the different rivers. 
It may be said to be J per cent to 1 J per cent in well-regulated rivers, 
and occasionally 2 or 2^ per cent. The importance of limiting the 
floating to one year is seen from the fact that two-year floating 
increases the percentage of sunken logs about 100 per cent. Further- 
more, the logs are often gTeatly damaged during a two-year logging 
period. A considerable loss of interest must also be charged to the 
logs during the two years of floating. All told, it is estimated that 
two-year floating represents a loss to the log owner of at least 20 to 
25 per cent of the log value. The expenses for improvements, 
therefore, must be considered a very good investment on account 
of the decreased time required for floating. 

These improvements generally consist of dams with which to 
regulate the water, and walls of logs, stone, or concrete. Stones and 
other obstacles must be blasted and many booms laid out in various 
parts of the river to prevent the logs from taking a wrong course. 

PROCESS OF FLOATING. 

The floating generally starts in May and ends in October or Novem- 
ber. The logs piled on the banks of the rivers are dumped into the 
water as soon as the ice melts. The cost of this work is charged 
direct to each log owner. 

The floating river is divided into districts of 7 to 14 mfles each, 
and the floating is generally given out on contract, with strict stipula- 
tions in regard to the time when the floating should finish and also 
with provisions for fines to be paid by the contractor for logs that 
are left over, etc. The floating must be well organized and the 
floating crews in the various districts must cooperate with one 
another. 

The spring flood starts first and lasts only a few weeks. Quick 
action must be taken to have the logs moved during this time and 
every effort is made to economize water by retaining the water 
supply in the dams to the greatest possible extent. The different 
districts are connected with telephone so that the dam keepers can 
let out the water when necessary. 

The flood in the moimtainous districts starts generally about two to 
three weeks after the spring flood is over. This second flood is of great 
importance to Sweden, but it is seldom found in other countries 
except Norway and in two rivers in Finland. It is on account of 
these two floods that floating can generally be accomplished during 
one season in Sweden. 



88 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The logs frequently jam in the rivers and it may be necessary to 
use dynamite in order to loosen them. The logs are generally 
floated individually. Across lakes they are bunched in ring booms, 
consisting of about 100 boom sticks and capable of holding 15,000 
to 20,000 logs. These ring booms are towed across the lakes, either 
by small steamboats or by stationary electric motors on the shore. 

In the Tornea River, on the Finnish border, logs must be bunched 
and tied with chains, and similar regulations apply to the canals. 




Fig. 31. — Plan of sorting basin for saw logs at Sandslan. 

The average speed of the logs in the rivers is about 75 miles per 
month. As was mentioned previously, long lengths can not be 
floated in Swedish rivers without difficulty; but recent improvements 
have made it easier to float long lengths. Years ago, m many of 
the Swedish rivers, the maximum log length was omy 14 feet, and 
this may explain the demand in some countries for 14-foot lumber. 



SORTING OF LOGS. 

In the lower course of the rivers the logs must be sorted according 
to ownership, and for this purpose a suitable location is selected 
where an arrangement for 'sorting is constructed. These sorting 
devices may vary considerablv in construction. The best device is 
found in the sorting basin of Sandslan, in the Angermann River. 
This sorting basin, laid out according to a Norv\^egian system (Blak- 
stad system), can sort 120,000 logs in 10 hours. Up to 90 different 
log owners may have their logs sorted at one time. In the basin 
310 men per shift are employed and more than 12,000,000 logs are 
sorted per year. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 32.— BUNDLING SMALL TOP LOGS FOR FLOATING. 




Courtesy of ForustL-r O. EnLToth. 

FIG. 33.— PULP LOGS AND LOGS FOR BOX FACTORIES PILED ON RIVER BANK. 



Special Agents Series No. 195 




SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 89 

After the logs have been sorted accordmg to ownership, they are 
bundled and tied with wire. At times they are made into small 
rafts. There are 130 to 200 logs per bundle, and by means of a clever 
mechanical device, 16 men can put up 6 bundles per hour. From 
the sorting basin the logs are towed to the mills. 

After the logging season is over a final insj)ection is made of the 
entire floating river in order to clean up possible left-over logs and 
to settle the question of damage to private property caused by logs 
diu'ing the floating season. 

In a few districts in southern Norrland logging is interrupted 
during part of the summer on account of the salmon fishing, which 
is going on at that time. Some of the mills in these districts must 
therefore take their logs to the mills by rail, which entails a large 
expenditure. For this purpose a few companies have constructed 
their own railroads. 

Kecently in Sweden a new machine has been put on the market 
for salvaging sunken logs. It consists of a crane mounted on a 
barge and provided with an axle that has two claws. These claws 
may be lowered into the water, and when they reach the bottom 
the points of the claws are about 13 feet apart. As the claws are 
pulled up they grab the logs hang between their points. The macliine 
is driven by motor power and is estimated to salvage 100 to 200 
logs per day. 

OCEAN RAFTING OF LOGS. 

Besides the river floating, millions of logs are rafted every year 
up and dowTi the coast and even from Finland across the Gun of 
Bothnia. The Finnish logs are usually rafted in entire tree lengths, 
and the rafts are made up in cigar-shaped forms or placed in frames 
containing 600 to 800 logs. About 15 of these rafts are connected 
with chains and towed by steamer to their destination. 

It has been reported that even mills south of Stockholm have 
taken logs from northern Finland, but this may be rather unusual. 
The rafting of Finnish logs is generally limited to central and northern 
Norrland. During the latter part of the war the rafting of logs from 
Finland decreased to some extent. 

The various districts along the coast in Norrland take large quan- 
tities of logs from adjacent districts. 

LABOR AND WAGES. 

It is estimated that 30,000 to 35,000 men are employed annually 
in floating logs. The Swedish floaters are skilled workers but their 
work is both dangerous and difiicult. The men must often pass the 
night on the frozen ground, but during late years, the floating associa- 
tions have endeavored to provide adequate housing accommodations. 

The work is generally done on a contract basis, but when wages 
are paid they have been about $1.05 in 1913 for ordinary floating 
work and $1.18 for sorting logs. During 1918 from $4 to $6.50 was 
usually paid for floating and sorting. 

QUANTITIES OF LOGS FLOATED. 

No official fibres are available as to the number of logs floated, 
» but comprehensive statistics have been compiled by Otto Hellstrom. 



90 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The following table shows the number of logs floated in 1912 and the 
average for 1908-1912 on the Klar River and the floating-river sys- 
tems of northern Sweden : 



Floating-river systems. 



Kalix, including Tomea and 

Tarendo Rivers 

Vitan 

Ranea 

Lulea 

Alteran 

Pitea 

Aby 

Byske 

Skelleftea 

Burea 

Ricklean 

Dalkarlsan 

Sevaran 

Tavlean 

Umea 

Homean 





Average 




1908-1912. 


1,100,000 


8G0, 000 


64,000 


60, 000 


415,000 


350, 000 


644, 000 


510, 000 


157,000 


139, 000 


632, 000 


(>00, 000 


319,000 


180, 000 


578, 000 


007, 000 


2,442,000 


2,440,000 


609,000 


412, 000 


817,000 


806, 000 


83,000 


60,000 


785,000 


604,000 


158, 000 


112,000 


2,237,000 


2,094,000 


359,000 


288,000 



Floating-river systems. 



Ore 

Leduan 

Logde 

Gidea and Husum 

Mo 

Angermann 

Indal 

Ljungan 

Harmangersan 

Delangersan 

Ljusne 

Skerjan 

Dal 

Klar 

Total 



692,000 

102, 000 

373, 000 

2,081,000 

2, 282, 000 

10,832,000 

6, 950, 000 

7,046,000 

2, 187, 000 

1,603,000 

9,289,000 

175, 000 

18,000,000 

4,700.000 



77,711,000 



Average 
1908-1912. 



687, 000 

42,000 

360,000 

1,718,000 

2, 282, 000 

9,780,000 

5,131,000 

5, 082, 000 

1,372,000 

884, 000 

9, 2G9, 000 

91,000 

14,400,000 

4,711,000 



65,937,000 



Besides the logs floated in the districts specified, it may be safe 
to assume that 3,000,000 to 4,000,000 logs are floated in southern 
Sweden. 

Since 1912, the quantities of logs floated have increased consider- 
ably, and at present it is believed that approximately 85,000,000 
logs are floated in all Swedish rivers. The quantity is estimated at 
approximately 394,000,000 cubic feet. It must be borne in mind, 
however, that pulp logs are included in these figures. 

The most important floating river in Sweden is the Angermann 
River. The quantities of logs floated in this river during the years 
1915, 1916, and 1917 were as follows: 1915—9,820,930 logs contain- 
ing 49,367,817 cubic feet; 1916— 12,667,593 logs containing 60,826,169 
cubic feet; 1917—13,589,199 logs containing 60,277,914 cubic feet. 

The average distance of floating in Sweden is estimated at 125 
miles. 

COST OF FLOATING. 

Immediately before the war it was estimated by Otto HeUstrom 
that the average cost of floating logs a distance of 125 miles was 
approximately 0.635 cent per cubic foot. This charge also included 
sorting at the mouth of the river. It is almost impossible to ^ive 
such a detailed statement of the floating cost in the different districts 
because the cost of floating is based on different standards in nearly 
aU districts. In some districts the cost of floatmg is based on the 
cubic foot and other districts on the log, and in the latter case the 
tariff is regulated according to log lengths. In some districts there 
may be extra charges for lengths more than 20 feet and up. Other 
districts may be able to float such long lengths at a lower cost for 
the same distance. Furthermore, the cost of floating is dependent 
largely upon the expenditure made for improving the floating river 
and on previous depreciation charges on improvements. In the 
best-regulated floating rivers, which have been in operation for 
decades, the depreciation charges may be almost negligible. 

The accompanying diagram, prepared by Axel Lof,_a weU-known 
Swedish expert on floating, shows how the log dimensions affect the 
cost of floating and refers to conditions in the Dal River. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



91 




Fig. 35.— Relative cost of floating various log dimensions, shown by index numbers. 



92 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Generally speaking, the cost of floating is highest for the rivers of 
Norrbotten and Vesterbotten, because the number of logs floated 
per mile is smaller than in rivers farther south. 

According to information from various floating river districts, 
some examples are given illustrating the floating diarges and their 
increase after the war started compared with pre-war figures. 

It appears that the cost of floating before the war has varied from 
0.423 cent to 1.715 cents per cubic foot for the average distance, 
Besides these charges for floating, the dumping of the saw logs into 
the rivers was charged directly to each log owner. These charges 
amounted before the war to approximately 0.4 cent to 0.6 cent per 
log and in 1917, to 0.8 cent to 1.3 cents per log. 

The following statements with regard to the cost of floating in the 
different districts are taken from the reports of some of the principal 
floating associations in Sweden. The material collected has merely 
the object of showing the increase in the cost of floating during recent 
years and also how the cost of floating is calculated. 

Klar River. — ^The average cost of floating per cubic foot was as 
follows in the Klar River from 1913 to 1919: 1913, 0.49 cent; 1914, 
0.52 cent; 1915, 0.54 cent; 1916, 0.81 cent; 1917, 1.09 cents; 1918, 
1.24 cents; 1919, 1.24 cents. 

Dal River. — The basis of the floating charges for logs in the Dal 
River is as follows: Up to 9.8 feet long, equal to one-fifth of a 
standard log; 9.8 to 13.1 feet long, equal to one-third of a standard 
log; 13.1 to 29.5 feet long equal to 1 standard log; 29.'5 to 42.7 feet 
long, equal to 1^ standard logs; 42.7 to 59.0 feet long, equal to 4 
standard logs; 59.0 feet and up, equal to 8 standard logs. The 
average cost of floating in the Dal River, a distance of about 125 
miles, was 1.072 cents per cubic foot in 1913 and 1.876 cents per cubic 
foot in 1917-18. 

Ljungan River. — ^The cost of floating is calculated on the following 
basis: For logs 21 feet and shorter and less than 5 inches in top 
diameter, 0.35 standard log; 21 feet and shorter and 5 to 8 inches in 
top diameter, 0.50 standard log; 21 to and including 27 feet in length 
and less than 5 inches in top diameter, 0.50 standard log; 21 feet to 
and including 27 feet in length and 5 to 8 inches in top diameter, 
0.70 standard log; 27 feet and shorter and 8 to 11 inches in top 
diameter, 1 standard log; 27 feet and up to 40 feet, irrespective of 
top diameter, 3 standard logs; 40 feet and longer, irrespective of top 
diameter, 6 standard logs. 

Ljusne River. — ^The charges from Lessen Lake to the mouth of the 
river, a distance of approximately 218 mUes, were as follows, per 
standard log: 1913, 11.6 cents; 1914, 16.10 cents; 1915, 17.77 cents; 
1916, 27.60 cents. The cost of sorting amounted to 0.748 to 3.055 
cents per log. 

The floating charges in the Ljusne River are based on the following 
schedule: Logs up to and including 24 feet long, equal to one standard 
log; log lengths from 25 up to and including 27 feet, 25 per cent 
increase; log lengths from 28 up to and including 31 feet, 50 per cent 
increase; log lengths from 32 up to and including 34 feet, 75 per cent 
increase; log lengths from 35 up to and including 37 feet, 100 per cent 
increase; log lengths from 38 up to and including 40 feet, 200 per cent 
increase; log lengths from 41 feet up, 400 per cent increase. Ninety- 
five per cent of all logs floated in this river are less than 25 feet long. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 93 

_ Iifhdal River. — ^The average cost of floating in the Indal River was 
given at approximately 6.7 cents per standard log during the last 30 
years. The average log dimensions decreased from 19 feet, with a 
top diameter of 10 inches, in 1888 to 19 feet, with a top diameter of 
7 mches, in 1917. 

Angermann River. — ^In the An^ermann River for log lengths of 27^ 
to 35 feet there is 100 per cent increase over the shorter lengths in 
the cost of floating; for log lengths 35 to 40 feet, an increase of 150 
per cent; and for log lengths of 40 to 45 feet, an increase of 200 per 
cent. The average cost of floating per cubic foot in this river has 
been as follows: 



Years. 


Floating. 


Sorting. 


Total, 
floating 
and sort- 
ing. 


Years. 


Floating. 


Sorting. 


Total, 
floatihg 
and sort- 
ing. 


1913 


Cents. 
0.335 
.394 
.316 


Cents. 
0.268 
.311 
.176 


Cents. 
0.603 
.705 
.492 


1916 


Cents. 
0.474 
.686 
1.332 


Cents. 
0.289 
.490 
.957 


Cents, 
0.763 
1 176 


1914 


1917 


1915 


1918 


2 289 









In 1914, 10,588,348 logs were floated in this river, of which only 
630 logs were longer than 27^^ feet. 

Umea River. — ^The cost of floating in the Umea River was approxi- 
mately 20.10 cents per lo^ in 1915 and 21.17 cents in 1916, covering 
the longest distance in this river, which is approximately 240 miles. 
The cost of sorting logs was on an average 0.9 cent per log and was 
based on the following schedule: Logs 55 feet and up, equal to 8 
standard logs; logs 45 to 55 feet, equal to 5 standard logs; logs 35 to 
45 feet, equal to 3 standard logs; logs 27 to 35 feet, equal to 2 standard 
logs; logs 14 to 27 feet, equal to 1 standard log; logs 14 feet and 
less, equal to one-half standard log. 

Slcelleftea River. — ^The average cost of floating on the Skelleftea 
River was as follows: 1913, 0.74 cent per cubic foot; 1914, 0.81 cent 
per cubic foot; 1915, 0.80 cent per cubic foot; 1916, 1.04 cents per 
cubic foot; 1917, 1.12 cents per cubic foot. 

The maximum cost of floating from the most remote point of this 
river to the mouth of the river, a distance of approximately 190 
miles, amounted to 3.26 cents per cubic foot in 1917 and the sorting 
of logs amounted to 0.38 cent per cubic foot. 

The cost of floating is based on the following schedule: Logs 24 to 
27 feet, 50 per cent increase above shorter lengths; logs 28 to 33 feet, 
100 per cent increase above lengths shorter than 24 feet; logs 33 
feet and up, 300 per cent increase above lengths shorter than 24 feet. 

Pitea River. — The cost of floating in the Pitea River was on an 
average 13.4 cents per log in 1917. Log lengths in excess of 27 feet 
are counted as two standard logs, and no logs longer than 30 feet 
can be floated. 

Ranea River. — The charges for floating for the maximum distance 
(District No. 4) to the mouth of the Ranea River was as foUows from 
1913 to 1917: 1913, 1.61 cents per cubic foot; 1914, 1.68 cents per 
cubic foot; 1915, 1.80 cents per cubic foot; 1916, 1.63 cents per cubic 
foot; 1917, 1.89 cents per cubic foot. 

Lulea River. — The charges for floating in Districts Nos. 9 and 10 
on the Lulea River were as follows: 1913, 0.96 cent per cubic foot; 



94 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



1914, 0.90 cent per cubic foot; 1915, 1.63 cents per cubic foot; 1916, 
1.41 cents per cubic foot; 1917, 1.70 cents per cubic foot. 

Kalix River. — The cost of floating in the tenth district in the lower 
course of the Kalix River was as follows from 1913 to 1917: 1913, 
0.44 cent per cubic foot; 1914, 0.43 cent per cubic foot; 1915, 0.44 
cent per cubic foot; 1916, 0.51 cent per cubic foot; 1917, 0.89 cent 
per cubic foot. 

The cost of floating in Finland and of rafting logs to northern 
Sweden was approximately 3.2 cents per cubic foot in 1913 and 4 
cents in 19 

It may be stated as a general rule that of the total cost of trans- 
portation from river bank in the forest to the mills, the cost of 
floating itself is about 70 per cent and the cost of sorting about 30 
per cent. 

The following table, prepared by Otto Hellstrom, shows the average 
cost of floating on the different river systems of Sweden for iSe 
period 1908 to 1912: 



Floating-river sys- 


Average cost of 
floating, 1908-1912. 


Log con- 
tent. 


Floating-river sys- 
tems. 


Average cost of 
floating, 1908-1912. 


Log con- 


tems. 


Per log. 


Per cubic 
foot. 


Per log. 


Per cubic 
foot. 


tent. 


Kalix, including 
Upper Tornea 


Cents. 

8.85 
3.24 
5.97 
5.38 
2.25 
7.55 
4.44 
5.92 
3.67 
3.70 
1.82 
3.20 
2.62 
3.48 
6.53 


Cents. 

1.14 

.81 
.99 
.80 
.47 


Cubic feet. 

7.8 
4.0 
6.0 
6.7 

4.8 


Hornean 


Cents. 
1.92 
2.60 
5.17 
7.03 
3.14 
2.46 
3.35 
6.40 
2.50 
1.54 
1.91 
2.21 
2.44 
2.73 
2.27 


Cents. 
0.96 


Cubic feet. 
2.0 


and Tarendo 


Ore 




Rivers 




.85 

1.72 

.57 


6.1 


Vitan 




4.1 


Ranea.. 


Gidea and Husum. . 
Mo 


5.5 


Lulea 






Angermann 

Indal 






Pitea 






Aby 












Byske 


.93 


■' 6.4 


Harmangersan 

Delangersan 






Skelleftea 








.91 

.57 

1.03 

.42 


4.1 
.3.2 
S.1 
6.2 






Ricklean 








Dalkarlsan 


Dal 


.76 
.57 


3.6 




Klar 


4.0 




Average 










3.46 


.77 













The cost of floating has generally been reduced during the last 
haK century in most of the rivers in Sweden, in spite of the fact that 
wages have gone up to a very large extent. The decrease was due 
to the improvements made on the floating rivers. Besides this 
decreased cost of floating, which directly benefits the log o\^^lers, 
the improvements also opened up large areas of forest land and made 
them accessible to exploitation, thereby increasing the value of 
stumpage. 

The following figiu-es are given by Forester Ekman covering the 
cost of floating per standard log in the Ljusne River, a distance of 
about 150 miles from Lofsan to Lake Marmen, from 1865 to 1905: 
1865, 4.3 cents; 1870, 2.9 cents; 1875, 3.5 cents; 1880, 3.1 cents; 
1885, 2.1 cents; 1890, 1.7 cents; 1895, 1.4 cents; 1900, 1.3 cents: 
1905, 1.2 cents. The corresponding figures for 1910 and 1913, 
according to the reports of the Floating Association, are 4 cents and 
2.7 cents, respectively. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 95 
EFFECT OF FLOATING ON QUALITY. 

The timber must be materially affected by remaining in the water 
one or two years dm'ing the floating. The gum in the logs is partly 
washed out and the wood is made softer. Consequently the lasting 
qualities are somewhat decreased, but on the other hand the color 
of the wood becomes more uniform. 

It is also found that lumber cut from floated timber is less liable 
to shrink during the process of seasoning and shows less tendency 
to split, crack, or warp. It is also claimed that lumber of this kind 
is less liable to discolor during the seasoning process than lumber 
cut from logs that have not been in contact with water. However, 
during the process of floating, particularly during two years of 
floating, the sapwood of the logs may discolor and this is a serious 
drawback. 

The opinions in the different importing countries vary considerably 
in regard to the merits of lumber cut from floated timber. Germany 
and Denmark, for instance, both of which have been accustomed to 
receive large quantities of lumber cut from unfloated timber, always 
prefer such stock, while most of the other markets prefer the other 
kind. 

The drawbacks, if any, appear to be too small to offset the advan- 
tages of this cheap transportation facility. 

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS. 

In the future, one may look forward to increased activities in 
improvement of the waterways in Sweden to make them suitable 
for floating, particularly in the northernmost Provinces. The Swed- 
ish forest owners will thus be enabled to utilize to better advantage 
the waste products in the forests and the small-dimension logs. 

Furthermore, it is expected that when the many waterfalls have 
been harnessed, a more systematic economizing of the water will be 
imperative during the floating period. In this regard, the Swedish 
floating interests have much to learn from Norway. 

Although stumpage values will probably remain at a very high 
figure in the future, the cheap transportation of the saw logs will 
always enable the Swedish lumbermen to obtain the raw material 
delivered at the mills at a figure that will make possible competition 
in European markets with any other country. 

The cost of floating wdll probably decrease as soon as the many 
improvements in the waterways have been amortized. 



PART II.— LUMBER MANUFACTURE. 

SAWMILL INDUSTRY. 

DEVELOPMENT OP THE INDUSTRY. 

The sawmill industry has old traditions in Sweden and dates back 
several hundred 3^ears. The first mills were constructed in southern 
Sweden at the l^eginning of the sixteenth century. They were of 
primitive construction and operated by water power. The gang 
saws had only one saw blade inserted in the sash, and the kerf was 
frequently as heavy as one-half inch. The first improvement in the 
mill equipment was made at the end of the sixteenth century, when 
Dutch sawmill machinery was introduced. The Dutch gang saws 
were equipped with thinner saw blades and had several blades 
insertea in the sash. 

One of the first mills in Norrland was constructed in 1744 at 
Kramfors. Prior to the middle of the last century, the sawmill 
industry, basing its production on export, was concentrated mainly 
on the southwestern coast of Sweden and in the Province of Verm- 
land. But the mills were of small capacity, and the industry was 
conducted on a small scale, compared with the present sawmill 
industry in Sweden. These mills frequently operated with unsatis- 
factory results, and it was not until the sawmiU owners formed 
larger corporations that the industry started to grow to any great 
extent. 

The first sawmill company in Sweden was established in 1855 
(Korsnas Sagverks A/B.) at Gevle, in southern Norrland. The 
first steam sawmill in Sweden was constructed in 1851 at Wifsta in 
central Norrland, near the port of SundsvaU. This sawmill was 
operated in connection with a shipbuilding plant, and the wooden 
vessels turned out by this company were loaded with lumber, and 
both ships and cargoes were sold abroad. 

The heavy British import duty on lumber was a handicap to the 
Swedish sawmills, but in 1866, these import duties were abolished and 
the demand for Swedish lumber increased materially from that time. 
As a consequence of these conditions, many new sawmills were 
constructed in Sweden, and the lumber industry soon developed to 
large proportions. The majority of the present Swedish sawmills 
were constructed about 40 or 50 years ago, but the owners have 
modernized their equipment. The first sawmill operated by elec- 
tricity was built at Kramfors, in central Norrland, in 1897. To-day 
Sweden unquestionably stands as the leader of the world in efficient 
methods of manufacturing lumber and close utilization of sawmill 
waste. 

The latest statistics available (1916) give the total number of saw- 
mills and planing mills combined at 1,365, employing 46,864 hands. 
Tliis number, however, refers only to mills working on a commercial 
basis. Besides this number, there are at least three or four thousand 
small miUs, many of which are portable and scattered all over the 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 35.— LOGS FROM STATE FORESTS, SHOWING LARGE PERCENTAGE 

OF HEART. 




FIG. 37.— LOG JAM. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 





FIG. 39. — FLOATING LOGS IN NORRLAND. 



SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 97 

southern and central parts of the country. Their operations are 
limited mainly to supplying the local demands, in some cases only 
the needs of the property where they are located. Their importance 
to the lumber export trade is almost insignificant. 

The horsepower used by the larger mills in 1915 is given as 116,623, 
applied direct to the mxachines in the mills, and 18,049 for operating 
electric motors. The number of gang saws is given as 1,641 and the 
number of planers as 963. 

The value of the production of lumber of different kinds in 1914 
and 1915 was as follows: 



Items. 


1914 


1915 


Pine and spruce: 

Sawn planks, battens, and boards 


$41,200,000 

11,100,000 

6,000,000 

300,000 

400,000 


$49,900,000 

9,800,000 

8,700,000 

400,000 

300,000 


Planed boards 


Small-dimension lumber, including box shocks, planed and rough 

other lumber 


Wages for sawng and planing 




Total 


59,000,000 


69,100,000 





The following table shows the development of the Swedish saw- 
mill and planing-mill industr}^ from 1896 to 1915: 



Years. 


Number 
of mills. 


Number 
of hands 

em- 
ployed.o 


Hands 
per 
miU. 


Value of 
production. 


Horsepower applied direct 
to machines. 


Total. 


Per 
mill. 


Per 
laborer. 


1896 


992 
981 
1,019 
1,066 
1,148 
1,175 
1,122 
1,259 
1,370 
1,281 
1,377 
1,400 
1,222 
1,200 
1,232 
1,275 
1,248 
1,053 
1,101 
1,132 


36,797 
40,225 
40,683 
40, 865 
43,312 
42, 407 
40,581 
42,831 
41,849 
38,568 
40,347 
40,912 
36, 940 
35,576 
39, 605 
39, 603 
37,908 
44, 150 
641,847 
641, 161 


37 
41 
40 
38 
38 
36 
36 
34 
31 
30 
29 
29 
30 
30 
32 
31 
30 
42 
38 
36 


$33,600,000 
39,200,000 
38,200,000 
37,400,000 
43,800,000 
37,200,000 
37,700,000 
45,500,000 
41,100,000 
36,300,000 
43,500,000 
46,300,000 
37,600,000 
35,100,000 
48,900,000 
47,400,000 
46,700,000 
60,900,000 
59,000,000 
69,100,000 


37,126 
40, 472 
44, 292 
46,678 
51,526 
54, 215 
53,000 
59,080 
64,363 
64,589 
75,843 
82, 772 
82,097 
84, 196 
95, 994 
101,009 
99, 816 
106, 706 
113,058 
116,623 


37 
41 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
47 
47 
50 
55 
59 
67 
70 
78 
79 
80 
101 
103 
103 


1 


1897 


1.0 


1898 


1.0 


1899 


1.1 


1900 


1 2 


1901 


1.3 


1902.. 


1.3 


1903 


1.4 


1904 . . ... 


15 


1905 


1.7 


1906 


1.9 


1907 


2.0 


1908 


22 


1909 


2.4 


1910 


2.4 


1911 


2.6 


1912 


2.7 


1913... . 


2.4 


1914 


2.7 


1915 


2.8 







a Average for year. 

6 Of the total number, 1,847 hands were employed in the manufacture of charcoal. 

It is interesting to notice how, with the development of Swedish 
mills, the tendency has been to increase the horsepower per laborer; 
in other words, how machines have been used lately for purposes 
for which hand labor was employed formerly. 

2092°— 21 7 



98 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

LOCATION OF MILLS. 

The location of tlie Swedish saw and planing mills in 1915 is shown 
in the following table: 



Provinces. 



City of Stockholm 

Stockholm, rural districts 

Upsala 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Jonkoping 

Kronoberg 

Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Halland 

Goteborg and Bohus 

Elfsborg 



Number 


Number 


of mills. 


of hands. 


6 


240 


40 


661 


27 


938 


42 


1,086 


88 


1,485 


76 


848 


74 


1,411 


40 


858 


2 


30 


19 


211 


27 


297 


13 


182 


10 


118 


19 


2, 132 


62 


923 



Provinces. 



Skaraborg 

Vermland 

Orebro 

Vestmanland 

Kopparberg 

Gevleborg 

Vesternorrland 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten 

Norrbotten 

Total 

In towns. . . 
In country . 



Number 
of mills. 



1,132 

102 

1,030 



Number 
of hands. 



487 
2,378 
1,343 
1,369 
3,337 
5,672 
8,887 

981 
3,004 
3,004 



141,882 
5,020 
36, 862 



o Number employed at time statistics were taken. The average number employed during 1915 was 
41,161. 

The following table shows the quantity and value of the pine and 
spruce lumber produced by the Swedish sawmills and planing mills 
in the different Provinces in 1915, together with the total quantity 
and value for 1914: 



Provinces. 



City of Stockholm 

Stockholm, rural districts. . 

Upsala 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland 

Jonkoping 

Kronoberg 

Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Halland 

Goteborg and Bohus 



M feet.a 


Value.o 


12,405 


$286,000 


35, 872 


661,000 


77,314 


1, 703, 000 


60,362 


1,392,000 


76, 127 


1,562,000 


46, 804 


1,074,000 


58,331 


1, 253, 000 


45,835 


1, 146, 000 


884 


25,000 


9,553 


194, 000 


11,075 


285,000 


6,662 


232, 000 


7,598 


198, 000 


144,327 


5,344,000 



Provinces. 



Elfsborg 

Skaraborg 

Vermland 

Orebro 

Vestmanland . . . 

Kopparberg 

Gevleborg 

Vesternorrland. . 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten.... 
Norrbotten 

Total, 1915 
Total, 1914 



M feet.o 



31,092 

26, 976 

171, 635 

75, 115 

55, 736 

203, 015 

365, 698 

696, 507 

50,783 

224, 101 

215, 340 



2,709,147 
2, 611, 155 



Value.o 



714,000 
568,000 
4,067,000 
1,523,000 
1, 129, 000 
3,970,000 
7, 687, 000 
14, 782, 000 
1,039,000 
4, 569, 000 
4, 248, 000 



59,651,000 
49, 914, 000 



a Special stock (lath wood) is not included in the quantities produced but is included in the values. The 
value of the production of this stock in 1915 was about $509,000. 

The following table shows the quantity of the principal kinds of 
pine and spruce rough and planed lumber produced by the Swedish 
mills in the different Provinces in 1915, together with the totals for 
1914. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 99 

Pine and Spruce Lumber Produced by Swedish Sawmills and Planing Mills 

IN 1915. 



Provinces. 



Rough 
lumber 
(planks, 
battens, 

and 
boards). a 



Planed 
lumber. 



Total 

rough and 

planed 

lumber. 



Split 
wood 
(mill 
ends). 



Laths, 
mold- 
ing 
stock, 
etc. 



Box 

shooks. 



Staves.^ 



Total 
rough 

and 

planed 

lumber, 

split 

wood, 

laths, 

etc. 



City of Stockholm 

Stockholm, rural districts . 

Upsala 

Sodermanland 

Ostergotland. 



Mfeef. 
9,547 
27, 010 
64, 023 
36, 972 
57,812 



Jonkoping ' 30, 



Kronoberg. 

Kalmar 

Gotland 

Blekinge 

Christianstad 

Malmohus 

Holland 

Goteborg and Bohus . 

E!fsborg 

Skaraborg 

Vermland 

Orebro 

Vestmanland 

Kopparberg 

Gevleborg 

Vesternorrland .". 

Jemtland 

Vesterbotten 

Norrbotten 



Total, Sweden, 1915. 
Total, Sweden, 1914 . 



39, 569 

31, 996 

240 

5, 594 

7,757 

1,424 

4,587 

35,542 

19,811 

21,253 

137, 136 

63,401 

42,314 

132, 743 

241,974 

507, 612 

28,183 

148, 7C5 

178,416 



Mfeet. 
2,312 
6,491 
6, 123 
10, 135 
10, 133 
11,974 
8,140 
11,138 
598 
3,718 
22 
2,117 
1,386 
19,490 
8,627 
3,973 
17, 040 
6,044 
11,044 
44, 068 
86, 706 
80, 763 
19, 406 
40,041 
4,506 



Mfeet. 

11,859 

34, 101 

70, 746 

47, 107 

73, 945 

42, 777 

47, 715 

43,134 

838 

9,312 

7,779 

3,541 

5,973 

55, 032 

28,438 

25,226 

154, 176 

69,445 

53,358 

176,811 

328, 680 

588, 375 

47, 589 

ISS, 806 

182, 922 



Mfeet. 



616 
,627 
438 
229 
4 



195 



160 

137 

3,331 

801 

560 

1,925 

19, 255 

52, 549 

502 

21,114 

18, 773 



Mfeet. 
127 
636 
677 
166 
726 
1,965 
620 
161 
45 
99 
556 



339 

510 

106 

777 

1,108 

500 

2,043 

2,833 

8,638 

283 

7,213 

6,759 



Mfeet. 

305 

76 

1,443 

12, 514 

764 

1,862 

8,490 

1,852 

1 



Mfeet. 
114 
443 
821 
137 
463 
196 
1,506 
443 



36 

2,434 

892 

88, 829 

1,.'")82 

1,482 

11,036 

3,283 

674 

10, 208 

5,593 

20, 283 

318 

418 

848 



142 

2,509 

603 

649 

127 

402 

25 

2,315 

478 

644 

0,028 

9,337 

20, 002 

2,091 

0,5.50 

6,038 



Mfeet. 

12,405 

35, 872 

77,314 

60, .362 

76, 127 

46, 804 

58, 331 

45,835 

884 

9,553 

11,075 

6,662 

7,598 

144, .327 

31,092 

20, 976 

171, 635 

75, 115 

55, 736 

203,015 

365, 698 

696, 507 

50, 783 

224, 101 

215,340 



1,875,684 
1,713,191 



422,001 
529, 279 



2, 297, 685 
2,242,470 



124, 461 
135, 408 



37,055 
34,202 



187, 223 
125, 633 



62,723 
73, 442 



2, 709, 147 
2, 611, 155 



a Not including rough lumber produced as raw material for planing mills. 
b Including about 3,500,000 feet of species other than pine and spruce. 

It is seen from the foregoing table that the most important saw- 
mills are located in Norrland. The western coastal districts figure 
prominentl}^ in the manufacturing of box shooks and planed lumber, 
and these districts are also the center for important joinery factories. 

The introduction of steam sawmills in Sweden revolutionized the 
sawmill industry. Formerly the mills were located at the waterfalls 
in the interior, which involved heavy cost for transportation of the 
lumber destined for export. When the mills were operated by steam 
power, the question of location was made independent of the pres- 
ence of waterfalls, and nearly all the export mills, therefore, were 
located near the coast at the mouths of the floating rivers. 

Floating is by far the cheapest way of transporting wood, and the 
export mills located at the shipping ports have a great advantage over 
the mills located in the interior which ship their lumber for export 
by rail. 

In southern Sweden the mills are located along the railroad lines 
and are usually operated by peasants as a branch of their principal 
activity, agriculture. Many mills are also operated by lumbermen 
acquiring contracts for the logging of timberlands; their mills are 
usually of the portable type and are moved from year to year to 
different parts of the country where they may have taken over 
contracts for logging. 



100 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The defective floating facilities in southern vSweden hare made it 
diflicult to operate large sawmills. Many of the mills in southern 
Sweden are inefficiently operated; they pay slight attention to the 
saving of raw material and their eciuipment is often unsatisfactorv^, 
circular saws, defective edgers, etc., largely affecting their output. In 
northern Sweden the mills are of a larger capacity, well established, 
and supported by extensive timber holdings. Only a few mills of 
this type are found in southern Sweden, but some of these few are 
among the best-equipped mills in the country. In central Sweden 
there are several important sawmill districts, particularly aroimd 
Lake Wenner. 

The mills in Norrland, north of the Dal River, play a prominent 
part in the export lumber trade, as about 75 per cent of the total 
quantity of lumber for export is shipped through the Norrland ports. 

The principal sawmill districts in Sweden are as follows: On the 
coast of Norrland — ^Haparanda, Lulea, Pitea, Skelleftea, Umea, 
Hernosand, Sundsvall, Hudiksvall, Soderhamn, and Gevle; south of 
Stockholm — Norrkoping; on the southwest coast, Goteborg; and on 
Lake Wenner, Karlstad. There are also important interior districts 
in southern and central Norrland and Dalecarlia shipping by rail. 

OWNERSHIP OF MILLS. 

During the last half century, the development in Sweden has been 
toward operating the mills by stock companies. 
' The latest statistics available, showing the ownership of the saw- 
mills and planing mills, the number of mills, and the hands employed 
in 1915 and 1916, are as follows: 





191.5 


1916 


Classes of ownership. 


Numher NumTier 
of mills, ofhands.a 


Number 
of mills. 


Number 
ofhands.a 


Individuals . 


479 

46.5 

169 

10 

9 


6,671 

31,421 

3,577 

61 

1.52 


598 

518 

222 

17 

10 


8,227 


Companies 


34, 175 




4,183 


Economic associations . 


128 


State 


1.51 






Total 


1,132 


41,882 


1,365 46,864 



a At the time the statistics were obtained. 



The Government mills are small mills scattered in the different parts 
of the country; their importance is very limited and their production 
is not based on export. One of the mills cut only railroad ties for the 
State-owned railroads. 



SAWMILL ORGANIZATION. 



The larger mills in Sweden are engaged not only in cutting lumber, 
but also in manufacturing other wood products. It is generally con- 
sidered that the sa\^Tnill industry alone is not profitable for a forest 
owner. The value of the raw material is high and the waste must be 
turned into profit; therefore, the sawmills and planing mills form only 
a part of a large combination of different industries, all using wood as 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 101 

raw material for their products. It is evident that these conditions 
are of great importance, because if one })ranch fails to make a profit 
one year, the other branches may be of support in order to make a 

f»rofit on the whole operation. Furthermore, improvements in the 
orest, mills, etc., can be accomplished more readily because their 
expense may be distributed among all the industries that obtain their 
raw material from the forests and mill waste. 

During recent years, a consolidation of the different wood-using 
industries has been noticeable. Some mills may have insufficient 
supplies of raw materials while other mills may have large timber 
stands and limited manufacturing facilities. These two categories 
of industries frequently combine. The largest combination of this 
kind in Sweden was effected during the war and one company in 
northern Norrbotten was estabUshed by a consolidation of several 
mills. This company has a dominating position in this part of 
Sweden, producing annually 178, 000, 000 feet board measure of sawn 
lumber, 30,000 tons of mechanical pulp, 10,000 tons of soda pulp, and 
30,000 tons of pig iron, besides large quantities of charcoal. This 
company also operates a number of agricultural properties and has 
more than a million acres of timber land. 

Most of the larger sawmills are operated in connection with planing 
mills, box factories, and charcoal plants. Besides these, the mills 
usually have sulphite and sulphate mills and may even have paper 
mills. These mills are operated partly on the raw material obtained 
from sa\vmill waste and partly from pulp logs, which can not profit- 
ably be sawn into lumber. 

Charcoal is used in smelting iron ore and many of the larger com- 
panies also operate iron and steel plants. The scarcity of many com- 
modities during the war caused a further development of the wood 
by-products industry in Sweden, mainly utilizing waste from the pulp 
factories for manufacturing a number of chemicals. One of the re- 
markable developments during the war was the making of cattle feed 
from pulp by a special process ; in many cases this pulp was mixed 
^vith flour for making bread. In this way the Swedish people not only 
derived great financial benefit from the forests but also managed to 
turn wood into food products in time of stress. 

It was sometimes found during the war that the mills derived a 
greater financial return from sawmill waste than from the sale of sawn 
and planed lumber. To bear out this fact, a statement was given by 
a large mill in Norrland, producing about 40,000,000 feet board 
measure of lumber annually, from which it appeared that the mill's 
profit on the sale of sawmill waste in 1918 was about $235,000; in 
1917, S98,000; in 1916, $83,000; and in 1915, $29,000. 

It is evident that the smaller mills not able to utilize the waste in 
the same way as the large mills have difficulty in existing, particu- 
larly because they can not afford to pay as high prices for raw mate- 
rial as the larger mills because the larger mills can utiUze practically 
the whole log. 

The accompanying chart, showing administrative organization, 
gives an idea of the large proportions of some of the Swedish wood- 
using industries. 

Not all the large sawmiUs maintain all the activities shown in the 
diagram, but there are mills in Sweden that actually operate on such a 
large scale. Formerly many sawmills in Norrland had often been oper- 



102 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 103 

ated with insufficient capital. These mills were necessarily in the 
hands of the banks and were often forced to dispose of their forests 
in order to meet their obligations. Some mills were also, to some 
extent, dependent upon financial support from some of the largest 
foreign agents, but during the war the financial position of nearly all 
sawmills in Sweden was materially improved, and it is not supposed 
that any mills, at the present time, are dependent upon foreign finan- 
cial support. The smaller sawmills, on the other hand, are to a great 
extent, dependent upon advances made by domestic export agents. 

There are very few mills in foreign ownership at the present time ; 
the sawmill industry in Sweden must be considered to be almost ex- 
clusively Swedish-owned. 

The export mills in Sweden specialize in cutting stock for export, 
and do not generally handle any domestic orders. The domestic 
demands are supplied by smaller mills and the specifications are 
entirely different from the dimensions shipped for export, so that 
the mills can not cater profitably to both markets. 

EXPORT MILLS. 

The average standard export mill in Sweden may have an annual 
capacity of 15,000,000 to 18,000,000 feet board measure. The 
Swedish export mills are of somewhat smaller average capacity than 
the mills in Finland but considerably larger than the Norwegian 
mills. The reason for these conditions is that the Swedish mills are 
more dependent than the mills in Finland upon the log supply re- 
quired from other sources than their own^forests and also on account 
of the fact that the Swedish pulp industry is very considerable and 
takes a large quantity of logs that in other countries would be used 
by the sawmills. 

The largest Swedish mill has a capacity of approximately 
85,000,000 to 90,000,000 feet board measure per year and is equipped 
with about 30 gang saws. These gang saws are of old construction; 
the number of modern gangs necessary to turn out the quantities 
mentioned will be about 16. This mill employs about 1,000 hands 
and is located near Gevle, in southern Norrland. There are several 
mills m Sweden of an annual capacity of 40,000,000 to 60,000,000 
feet, but it is now commonly believed that it is not economical to 
operate such large mills, because it is difficult to regulate the produc- 
tion in dull times. It is considered preferable to operate several 
smaller mills, as any one of these mills may be conveniently shut 
down without interfering with the operation of the other mills. 

The most suitable size of sawmill in Sweden may cut approxi- 
mately 15,000,000 to 16,000,000 feet board measure per year, having 
an equipment of 6 modern gang saws and rmming one shift. In the 
future it is believed that no mill of any larger capacity than 
20,000,000 to 30,000,000 feet board measm-e \vill be constructed. 

Only the sawmills in southern and central Norrland are connected 
with box factories and planing mills because the wood in the northern- 
most sections of Norrland is not exceptionally well suited for planing 
purposes and the marketing conditions are not so favorable m that 
part of the country. Durmg the war the box-shook industry boomed 
and many new factories sprang up, supplying box material for the 
warring nations. 



104 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The complete layout of a modern mill, yards, docks, etc., is shown 
in figures 58, 59, and 60. 

Nowadays the making of plans for sawmills is left to engineering 
firms that make a specialty of this work, while formerly the sawmills 
were constructed in the less efficient way by contractors who did not 
always have the necessary knowledge of all the phases of the lumber 
industry. 

COST OF CONSTRUCTION. 

The cost of constructioYi of a sawmill plant based on an annual 
production of 15,000,000 to 16,000,000 feet board measure (working 
one shift 57 hom-s per week) was as follows in 1918: 

Power plant fully equipped (engine, 500 horsepower) $40, 000 

Mill and machinery (6 gang saws, 3 edgers, 2 resaws, and necessary small 
maclunes, such as trimmers, lath machinery, belts, transmission, including 

mill construction) 94, 000 

Log pond 13, 000 

Yard, equipped with rail system, cranes for piling, docks, trimining sheds, etc. 80, 000 

Workmen's houses, office buildings, etc 94, 000 

Electric-light plant 13, 000 

Roads, draining, etc 11, 000 

Various expenditures 16, 000 

Total 361,000 

The total cost of the plant per 1,000 feet board measure capacity 
was thus about $22.90, or $60,300 per gang saw in 1918. The total 
cost of this plant in 1914 would have been $11.50 per 1,000 feet 
ca-pacity, or $30,820 per gan^ saw. 

CREW. 

The crew of a sawmill with an annual capacity of about 16,000,000 
feet board measure per year would be about as follows: 

Pond (6 men): 1 log scaler, 1 assistant log scaler, 2 boom men, 2 men on bull chain. 

Mill (62 men): 1 superintendent, 6 head sawyers, 6 assistant head sawyers, 3 edger- 

men, 3 assistant edgermen, 3 trimmers, 3 assistant trimmers, 2 sawyers of staves, 

2 assistant sawyers of staves, 2 trimmers of staves, 2 loaders of staves, 1 sawyer of other 
small dimensions, 1 assistant sawyer of other small dimensions, 1 trimmer of slabs, 

3 loaders of small dimensions, 3 boys handling refuse, 2 graders, 2 assistant graders, 
1 oiler, 1 fireman, 1 engineer, 1 assistant engineer, 1 filer, 1 assistant filer, 1 clean-up 
man, 3 common laborers, 1 blacksmith, 1 assistant blacksmith, 1 carpenter, 2 watch- 
men, 1 tallyman. 

Yard (22 men): 1 superintendent, 1 assistant superintendent, 18 pilers, 1 engineer 
(locomotive), 1 switchman. 

Dock (4 trimming sheds, 43 men): 4 boys removing refuse, 5 men trimmin^ and 
loading split wood, 4 boys branding lumber, 1 old man or 2 boys for piling staves (who 
may also be used when loading staves), 5 men cleaning up in yard, and common labor- 
ers pumping barges, etc., 8 men loading lumber or conveyors in yard, 2 assistant fore- 
men, 4 graders, 4 trimmers, 4 men in barges. 

Thus the total would be 133 employees, not including 4 men who 
operate log elevators during the winter. 

MILLS FOR CUTTING TIES. 

Some mills are especially constructed for cutting ties. Most of the 
ties exported from Sweden are for use in the mines in the United 
Kingdom. The mills are equipped with circular saws and are similar 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 41.— SORTING BASIN FOR LOGS. 















' ■ \ *i 


^if^feSaiUiMlS^ 




i^. 





FIG. 42.— PILING LOGS ON LAND. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 105 



in construction to the edgers. In 10 hours about 1,200 to 1,600 six- 
foot ties may be produced by two men. 

The usual dimensions of ties cut in Sweden are as follows : 3 by 6 
inches ; 2| by 5f inches ; 2| by 5 inches ; 2f by 4| inches. The lengths 
are 3, 3^, 4, 4^, 5, 5^, and 6 feet. _ 

The saw must touch all four sides. It is required, however, that 
the ties must have at least 1| to 2 inches of sawn surface on the 
widest sides of the piece. 

The following table shows the number and dimensions of ties that 
are usually cut from logs of different top diameters : 



Top diameters. 



5-5J inches . 
^-^ inches 
6-6i inches . 



Number 
of ties. 



Dimen- 
sions. 



Inches. 
21 by 4 J. 
2* by 5. 
2| by SJ. 



Top diameters. 



64-7 inches . 
7f-7-| inches 
8-8i inches . 



Number 
of ties. 



Dimen- 
sions. 



Inches. 
3 by 6. 
2J by 4i 
2* by 5. 



The refuse from the tie mills is cut into staves, box shooks, etc. 

According to Forester M. Nordquist, the cost of sawing ties of 
different sizes in 1916 was as follows in cents per 100 ties. These 
charges do not include trimming. 



Lengths in feet. 


3 by 6 
inciies. 


21 by 5| 
inches. 


2i by 5 
inches. 


2f by 45 
inches. 


6 


Cents. 
26.8 
26.8 
24.1 
21.4 
21.4 
18.8 
18.8 


Cents. 
24.1 
24.1 
21.4 
18.8 
18.8 
16.1 
16.1 


Cents. 
21.4 
21.4 
18.8 
16.1 
16.1 
13.4 
13.4 


Cents. 

18.8 


5J . .... 


18.8 


5 


16.1 


4i . . . . . . 


16.1 


4 


13.4 


3i 


13.4 


3 


13.4 







GOVERNMENT-OPERATED MILLS. 



In the State forests, the Government operates 17 small mills. In 
1915, 227,233 logs, or 1,232,585 cubic feet, were sawn and the total 
production amounted to 40,493 cubic feet of railroad ties, 796,746 
cubic feet of lumber of different kinds, and 7,827 cubic feet of con- 
struction timber. The cost of production (sawTnilling and yarding) 
was given at 3.9 cents per cubic foot. 

Of the total quantities of lumber produced at these mills, includ- 
ing old stock, the following quantities were sold : 

702, 890 cubic feet of lumber $162, 781 

41, 211 cubic feet of railroad ties 6, 184 

284, 903 cubic feet of wood for various pui'poses 10, 060 

70, 787 cubic feet of lumber for various purposes '. 13, 346 

Total 192, 371 

It is claimed that the Government has been able to make better 
profits by manufacturing its timber into lumber instead of selling the 
timber standing or cut into saw logs, and the question is now under 
consideration whether the Swedish Government should follow the 
example of the Finnish Government by engaging in the sawmill and 



106 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

pulp industry on a large scale in order to increase the profits derived 
from the operation of the State forests. 

POWER. 

Most of the mills in Sweden are operated by steam power gener- 
ated by sawmill waste. Modern steam engines operating with super- 
heated steam reduce the consumption of fuel 30 to 50 per cent from 
that of the older steam engines. In some districts the waste is too 
valuable to be used for fuel and the sawmills may burn coal and turn 
the waste into pulp or sawdust briquet, the latter being used for 
smelting ore. The most modern plants are operated by electricity, 
every machine in the mill having an individual motor. The electric 
power is generated either from waterfalls or by burning sawmill 
waste. It is the hope of the Swedish lumbermen in Norrland, in the 
future, to operate the sawmills by electricity. It is estimated that 
50,000 horsepower will be necessary for this purpose, and this could 
easily be obtained by utilizing the water power in the rivers of Norr- 
land. 

Recently a few modern plants have installed plants generating gas 
(mono gas) from the sawmill refuse. It is claimed that about 50 per 
cent of the consumption of sawmill waste for fuel can be saved by this 
process, and in addition, valuable by-products are obtained, such as 
wood tar. The advantage of the ' 'mono-gas system" is that dry and 
green wood are equally good as fuel. 

It is generally calculated that a steam engine of about 500 horse- 
power would require 1,700 to 1,800 cubic feet of sawdust and other 
refuse per shift of 10 hours. Most of the mills also operate electric- 
light plants. 

LOG PONDS. 

When the logs are towed from the log-sorting basin in the rivers 
to the miU, provisions are made for storing logs either in log jjonds 
or on land. During the winter the water freezes and extraordinary 
measures must be taken to store the lumber in such a way that it 
will be easily accessible. This may be done by piling the logs on 
land in huge piles, each containing one dimension, based on the 
top diameter, which work is done by log elevators having a capacity 
of 150 to 200 lo^s per hour; or the logs may be piled crosswise in 
13 to 15 tiers and stored under the ice. 

One system consists of drawing one tier of logs partly upon land, 
and then drawing the other tiers close onto the first tier so that 
about one-fourth of the log lengths protrude out of the water. 

The log ponds are divided into several pockets to separate pine 
logs from spruce logs and also to sort these logs according to top 
diameters and grades. Some mills sort the top-diameter dimensions 
on the half-inch, while closer utilization of the logs calls for sorting 
on the quarter inch. Short log lengths are sometimes separated in 
the ponds from standard log lengths and in the most efficiently 
operated miUs the logs are also separated according to quality. 

It is very important to effect this sorting carefully, as there is a 
different sawing schedule for each of the categories named. 



SWEDISH LUMBER USTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 107 

During the winter when the water freezes, either the logs must 
be hauled from the piles on land or an open canal may be made in 
the pond by exhaust water from the boiler. This system has the 
disadvantage that the facilities for sorting the logs before they are 
taken to the mills are at times unsatisfactory. In order to improve 
these conditions several mills in northern Sweden have hot ponds. 
These ponds are usually 110 to 134 feet wide and 175 to 350 feet 
long. The walls are^ constructed of 4-inch planks and during the 
summer the wall facing the mill is removed. It is estimated that 
by using this system of lo^ ponds, the sawing capacity of the mills, 
during the wintertime, is increased about 10 per cent and the logs 
may be sorted efficiently. In the ponds there are usually installed 
cross-cutting saws to buck the logs into suitable lengths, as some 
mills are taking logs in entire tree lengths from the forests. Logs 
defectively crosscut in the woods are also crosscut in the ponds before 
they are taken to the miU. 

Before the logs are puUed up the gangway to the miU they are 
carefully inspected by the scaler, who directs the logs to the proper 
gangsaw set for the cutting of each dimension and grade. 

During late years a very practical apparatus for transporting logs 
from ponds to mill has been inaugurated. Formerly several logs 
were bunched and hauled up the gangway on chains, but this system 
required a great deal of power. A new system has a gangway for 
each gang saw and the bull chain is provided with steel carriers 
having an edge like a saw, whereby the logs are held firmly in place. 
The distance between these metal carriers varies from 5 to 5f feet. 
The logs are merely pushed onto the chains in the ponds and carried 
up the gangway to the mill. When the logs are placed in front of 
the saw carriage, the top end touches a lever connected with the 
belt, which is shifted to the loose pulley, and the operation is thereby 
interrupted. As soon as the log is removed from the chain, the belt 
is transferred by a weight to the fixed pulley and the next log is 
hauled up. By means of the new system, the services of several 
men in the pond and on the log deck can be dispensed with. 

MILL CONSTRUCTION AND MACHINERY. 

The sawmills are built of wood; no steel mills are found in Sweden. 
Usually the sawing of lumber and the utilization of waste products 
are combined in one miU, but in some cases a special annex is con- 
structed, adjacent to the sawmill, for sawing slabs, edgings, etc., 
into laths, broom handles, box shooks, and similar stock. This latter 
system has many advantages, especially in the case of large opera- 
tions. Some of the larger sawmill companies operate two plants, 
one for pine and the other for spruce. 

The mills are usually constructed in two stories. In the basement, 
the foundation of the gang saws, conveyors for sawdust, and machines 
for cutting refuse into chips for pulp miUs (hogs) are located. On 
the upper floor the sawmill machinery is installed. Most of the mills 
are built to cut logs up to 35 to 40 feet in length, but such log lengths 
are seldom sawed, the maximum being 27 to 30 feet. 

The Swedish sawmill machinery is believed to be superior to other 
types in accuracy of sawing and saving of material. Several large 
factories in Sweden turn out sawmiU and planing-mill machinery 



108 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

for both domestic and foreign markets, Tlie principal feature about 
the Swedish machines is the excellent steel used in their manufacture, 
which enables the machines to turn out carefully manufactured 
stock. 

Gangsaws are used by the Swedish standard mills, while circular 
saws are commonly found in the mills operated on a small scale. 

An American band saw was installed in one of the larger mills in 
Sweden a few years before the war, but this type was found im- 
practicable for Swedish conditions on account of the waste and the 
large percentage of miscuts. The Swedish logs are of too small 
dimensions to make the use of American band saws possible and 
the percentage of clears is insignificant, so that the band head saw 
is not suitable for this material. 

Many of the larger Swedish export mills are equipped with machin- 
ery of the Bolinders type, and a short description of these machines 
is given below because they are generally considered as standard in 
northern Europe. The principal features of these machines have 
been patented by the manufacturer. 

Part of the followin^information has been supplied by the manu- 
facturers, e' . & C. G. Bolinders, Mekaniska Verkstads A/B., Stock- 
holm, concerning the machines that they turn out: 

GANG SAWS. 

The gang saws used in Sweden are constructed 20, 24, 30, and 33 
inches in sash width. The bedplate is of heavy design and is con- 
structed so as to absorb vibration, insuring smooth running. The 
crank shaft is of the so-called "machined" type and the two webs of 
the crank are fitted with counterweights for balancing the momentum 
of the saw-blade frame and connection rod, whereby shocks at either 
end of the stroke are avoided. 

The bearings are of the self-acting ring oiler type, lined with white 
metal. They are furnished with felt packing at each end to prevent 
the entrance of dust and dirt. The bearings are brought as close to 
the crank as possible, which makes the machine reliable in operation. 
The fl3rwheels are located one at each end of the shaft outside the 
bearings. The connecting rod is of strong construction, and the 
heads are so designed that the necessary adjustments may be made 
easily. The solid construction of the sash is one of the most impor- 
tant details of the gang saw. The capacity of the machine is de- 
pendent upon the feed mechanism. The 20 and 24 inch gangs are 
provided with continuous feed mechanism, which can be regulated 
while the machine is working. By a simple movement the operation 
can be instantly stopped or reversed, if necessary. The 30 and 33 
inch gangs, as a rule, are, fitted Avith an intermittent feed mechanism. 

The upper feed rollers, which are power driven, are self-setting 
without any assistance from the operator. This is due to the fact 
that the lowest position of the upper rollers is changeable and under 
the control of springs in a vertical direction. This position can be 
adjusted to the size of the log that is being sawn. For example, in 
the case of sawing a log 9 inches in top diameter, the lowest position 
of the upper feed roller is adjusted, so that the opening between the 
upper and lower feed rollers is 8V inches. As the log passes through 
the sash the top roller raises itself. When the log has passed through 
the sesh, the upper roller falls back without shock to its original posi- 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 109 

tion 8^ inches above the lower roller, ready to receive another 9-inch 
log. The upper roller works in a frame, which is pivoted to one side 
of the machine and can be swmig clear readily, so that the sash be- 
comes easily accessible, which is an advantage when inserting or 
changing blades. 

The crank pin is continuously lubricated through the crank shaft 
from the lubricator, and the guides from oil pumps are aU mechani- 
cally driven. The loose pulley runs in ball bearings. 

The following table shows the specifications for the principal stand- 
ard sizes of gang saws in Sweden: 



Width of 

saw sash. 


Length of 
stroke. 


Revolu- 
tions per 
minute. 


Necessary 
brake 
horse- 
power. 


Driving pulleys. 


Bedplate. 


Diameter. 


Face. 


Length. 


Width. 


Inches. 
20 
24 
30 
33 


Inches. 
20 
20 
20 
20 


3.50 
325 
290 
275 


30 
30 
30 
30 


Inches. 
39 
39 
39 
39 


Inches. 

Si 

s* 

8j 


Inches. 
71 
71 
71 
71 


Inches. 
57 
57 
57 
57 



Larger types of gang saws, having sashes 36 and 42 inches wide, 
are also made in Sweden, but these gang saws are manufactured 
mainly for export, particularly to the Russian market. 

For each saw there are two pairs of log carriages, one pair in front 
of the saw and the other behind. While formerly the sawyer had to 
place the log in position on the carriage by lifting or roHing, this work 
IS now handled by a foot lever (similar to ''steam niggers" in American 
mills). The one front carriage is constructed so that the logs may 
easily be turned and placed into position on the carriage by a pair 
of claws operated by a handle. Alter the log has passed through the 
gang, the carriage is moved automatically back into position for the 
next log. Instead of using similar log carriages at the rear end of the 
saw, sometimes two steel arms running on rails under the roof are 
employed. 

The lumber is transferred over to the conveyors by a pair of steel 
arms operated by foot levers. By these improvements the heavy 
work in the sawmills is materially decreased, as the sawyers, practi- 
cally speaking, do not touch the logs or the lumber. 

The use of special gangs for sawing crooked logs is an example of 
Swedish thoroughness in effecting the largest possible saving in raw 
material. Instead of being crosscut into smaller log lengths, these 
logs can be sawed on the special gangs. The rail on which the 
carriage runs can be moved to either side of the gang, whereby 
crooked logs can be turned so that the saws cut parallel with the grain. 
Another system has a number of rollers, which can be turned at an 
angle to permit sawing to follow the bend of the log when passing 
through the gang. 

Some of the gang saws have been constructed for cutting two logs 
at a time; but this system has now been abandoned because the 
modern single gang saw is as effective as the double gang saw of the 
old type, and this double gang saw. required three operators, while 
the naodern type requires only two. Furthermore, trouble is often 
experienced in sawing different log lengths at one time, and the 



110 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

double gang saw also has a tendency to cut with less accurac}^ than 
the single gang saw. 

The present types of gang saws represent an important improve- 
ment over gangs used 5 or 10 years ago. The speed of the new types 
has been increased about 77 per cent above the speed of former types. 
The present standard gangs turn out per hour on an average 48 logs 
less than 10 inches in top diameter, and of an average length of 18 
feet, while formerly only 27 logs per hour were sawn. This estimate 
includes the time necessary for breakdowns, clearing and placing 
logs in position on the log carriages, etc. This increased capacity 
of the gang saws, therefore, will partly offset the heavy increase in 
wages paid to sawmill laborers at the present time. 



ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo 



'\'^\,y\^^V'^\^'\^^\>^V'\^^\^\^^^ 







^ ^ as* 



Fig. 44.— Standahl's saw blades (a) and ordinary saw blades (6). 



SAW BLADES. 

The saw blades used in the gang saws are made of the best Swedish 
steel. The thickness of the blades has constantly been reduced during 
the last few years, and the common type now used in the mills is 17, 
18, and 19, Birmingham wire gauge. To change from 14 to 17 B. W. 
G. means a saving in raw material of about 3 per cent. The filing is 
always done by special machinery. Lately an improved system of 
swaging has been instituted whereby the teeth are bent only at the 
point and slightly turned at the same time and not, as formcrlv, 
swaged from the base. By this procedure the kerf has been made 
considerably smaller. There are special machines for swaging the 
teeth in this way. Some mills use very thin saw blades, 20 and 21 
B. W. G. These blades have one row of bumps on each side of the 
blade close to the back of the blade, whereby the saw blade is given 
a conical shape, enabling the mills to use a smaller swaging and con- 
sequently entailing less waste. It is claimed, however, that the 
speed of sawing is somewhat decreased and the use of these blades 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. Ill 

is dependent upon whether the value of the saving in raw material 
and m waste wiU offset the increased cost of labor. (See fig. 48.) 

The following table shows the allowance for swaging and kerf for 
saw blades of various thicknesses, according to the Birmingham wore 
gauge : 



No. 


Thickness of blade. 


Swaging. 


Kerf. 


No. 


Thickness of blade. 


Swaging. 


Kerf. 


6 


Inch. 
203 


Inch. 
0.059 


Inch. 
{ 0.262 
.239 
.224 
.207 
.193 
.179 
.168 
.154 
.142 
.131 
.124 


17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 


Inch. 
0.058 


Inch. 
I 0.039 

1 .030 


Inch. 
( 0.097 


7 


.180 


.049 


J .088 


s 


.165 


.042 


1 .081 


9 


.148 


.035 


1 .074 


10 


.134 ... 


.032 


f .062 
\ .058 


11 


120 


.028 


P 


.109 






13 


.095 




14 


.083 




)•> 


.072 




16 


.065 











Circular saws are never used for cutting ordinary logs in standard 
Swedish mills, because the}^ do not turn out lumber sufficiently- 
accurate in manufacture to meet the requirements of foreign cus- 
tomers. The standard mills use circular saws only for cutting small 
timber. 

EDGERS. 

It is generally figured that one ed^er is sufficient to take care of the 
output of two gang saws when a rational system of sawing is applied 
(passing through the gang saw twice logs 7 inches and more in top 
cQameter). 

Tlu-ee principal types of edgers are used in the Swedish mills. The 
largest size is used especially for edging small timbers and heavy 
construction materials. This type wdll edge lumber 2 to 20^ inches 
in width and up to 8 inches in tliickness. The medium-sized edger 
is the standard type in all larger mills. It will size lumber 2 to 14 
inches in wddth and up to 6 inches in thickness. A smaller type is 
used in the smaller mills and will edge lumber 2 to 12 inches in width 
and up to 4 inches in thickness. There are also various types for 
edging staves and other small-dimension lumber, which are con- 
structed along the lines of the edgers described. 

The following table shows various items connected with the opera- 
tion of the large, medium-sized, and small edgers: 



Items. 



Distance between centers of feed rollers inches 

Rate of feed linear feet per minute 

Speed of arbor revolutions per minute 

Pulley: 

Diameter inches 

Face do.. 

Saw: 

Diameter do . . 

Center hole do. . 

Pin hole do.. 

Pin hole distance from center do. . 

Approximate power required brake horsepower 



Large. 



49i 

200-230' 

1,800 

m 



37| 
3| 

25 



Medium- 
sized. 



47-1 

200-230 

1,800 

94 

25H 
3| 

i 
2A 
20 



Small. 



40* 

165-200' 

1,800 

124 
74 

21M 
3 

4 

2 
15 



112 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

A special feature with the more recent t3^pes of Swedish edgers is 
that the feed rollers are raised automatically at the moment the}^ are 
brought in contact with the inserted lumber without the intervention 
of the operator. The lumber is driven toward the machine by a 
special feed mechanism. The edger is also provided with a re\^ersing 
me(;hanism and the saw arbor runs in a double row of ball bearings. 
The adjustable saws are moved by a lever and the edgers are set with 
a simple device in order to give the lumber the required increase of 
width to provide for the shrinkage during the process of drying. 

RIP SAW FOR SMALL-DIMENSION LUMBER. 

The rip saw is fed by means of a small toothed wheel under the 
table, with its teeth projecting above the surface of the table. Owing 
to the construction of this feed wheel, the edging is pressed against 
the guide plate at the same time that it is moved forward. Above 
the table there is an upper feed wheel pivoted to a support and 
capable of raising or lowering itself to accommodate the lumber. 
The following are the specifications for tliis rip saw: 

Feed, 230 lineal feet per minute. 
Revolutions of spindle, 1,800 per minute. 
Dimensions of spindle pulley, 8 by 5^ inchea. 
Diameter of saw blade, 15| inches. 
Diameter of center hole in saw blade, 2| inches. 
Power required, 7 to 8 horsepower. 

HORIZONTAL BALANCED CROSSCUT SAWS. ^ 

The horizontal balanced crosscut saw is intended for crosscutting 
timber, lumber, and sawmill waste, and is made in three sizes. The 
saw spindle is journaled in a strong frame, which is balanced by 
means of a weight and which can be raised or lowered by either a 
hand or a foot lever. The driving belt of the saw spindle is tightened 
by a very simple arrangement, for which reason a belt woven in one 
piece can be used. 

The following table shows the specifications for crosscut saws of 
the three sizes : 



Items. 




Small. 



Diameter of saw inches. . 

Bedplate length and width do — 

Electric motor power horsepower. . 

Speed revolutions per minute. . 



20 

42J by 17 

4 

1,800 



TRIMMER FOR BOX SHOCKS, STAVES, ETC. 

The trimmer for box shooks, staves, etc., is generally provided 
with two or three circular saws. The two outer saw blades can easily 
be set to cut for various lengths. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 113 

The specifications are as follows: 



Items. 




No. 2. 



Number of saw blades 

Cutting capacity inches. . 

Maximum diameter of saws do 

Diameter of center hole of saw : do — 

Diameter of pin hole of saws do 

Distance of pin hole from center do — 

Maximum distance between outer saws do 

Minimum distance between outer blades do 

Revolutions of saw spindle per minute 

Driving pulley: 

Diameter *. inches. . 

Face do 

Revolutions per minute 



Iby 



12^J by 4J 
18 
2| 

11 

48 

9J 

1,«00 



3§ 



MECHANICAL DEVICES FOR HANDLING LUMBER IN MILLS. 

Formerl}^, when labor was comparatively cheap, not much atten- 
tion was given to saving labor in the mills. During the last 10 years, 
however, the labor problem has steadily grown and at present the 




J J J 



III! II I I J Ill lllllllillll 





Fig. 45. — Plan of Swedish sawmill, box factory, and dry kiln. 1, log pond; 2, sa\vmill; 3, power plant; 4, 
dry kiln; b, box factory; 6, sorting table. 

prices paid for labor in the Swedish mills are very high. Lately, 
therefore, the mills have endeavored to decrease the expense of 
handling lumber by installing various labor-saving devices. Among 
these the automatic conveyors are of main importance. 

The lumber is transported from one machine to another on live 
rollers, and slabs and edgings are ti'ansported in a similar way on 

2092°— 21 8 



114 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

belts. In order to prevent accumulation of sawmill waste in the 
mill the belts for carrying refuse are generally installed on the lower 
floor of the mill and the refuse is dumped on these belts through 
openings in the upper floor. In some mills refuse is also transported 
on carriages running on a rail suspended from tlie roof. 




Fig. 46. — Plan of Swedish sawmill, yard, and docks. 1, sawmill; 2, car transfer; 3, yard; 4, trimming sheds; 

5, barges; 6, conveyors. 

The Swedish mills endeavor to have the lumber pass one way and 
to avoid transportation sidewise as much as possible. 



SAWING. 

As an average result of the sawing of standard logs in Sweden, the 
following example is given, the percentages being expressed in rela- 
tion to the cubical contents of the logs based on top measurements: 
Planks, battens, and boards (trimmed stock), 70 per cent; sawdust, 
8 per cent; shrinkage during drying, 4 to 5 per cent; slabs, edgings, 
etc., 12 per cent; mill ends, 6 per cent. 

It is evident that the sawing results depend to a great extent 
on whether the mills pass the logs once or twice through the gang 
saws. 

Practically the only part of the log that may be termed waste is 
the shrinkage. The Swedish sawmill industry, therefore, may be 
compared favorably with the packing industry in the United States, 
in which the only thing wasted is the squeal of the pig. 

The quality of the Swedish lumber may not be so high as that of 
some of the softwoods of the United States, but the Swedish lumber- 
men endeavor to make their profits on the utilization of the logs and 
do not sacrifice quantity in order to produce quality. For Swedish 
conditions, this is the only sensible method of operation, and only by 
adhering to this policy can the Swedish lumbermen expect to hold 
the present firm position in the world markets. 

The smaller mills of the portable type do not offer anything of inter- 
est, because the logs are sawn in a haphazard way and the waste is 
often as lar^e as 20 to 25 per cent. These operations, therefore, will 
not be considered in this report. 



SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 115 




-^8 



-a 



SB 



"3 M 






o? 









116 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Spruce logs are sawn the year round, but pine logs are not sawn 
during the summer months, because pine is more liable to discolor 
during the summer. The sawing is effected according to special 
schedules, and each gang saw is adjusted to cut only one log dimension 
at a time. For instance, one gang may cut 6-inch logs for one week 
and 6i-inch logs the following week. 

Before the sawing season starts the mills generally run three or 
four weeks on trial. During this period the contents of each log 
sawn is carefully estimated and also the quantity of lumber and 
waste produced from each log. A record is kept of each log and the 
sawing schedules used in each case in order to ascertain which sched- 
ules would give the best results, both in the output of lumber and in 
the manufacture of the sizes for which the best prices are obtained. 
Several mills in the same district sometimes cooperate in these trials, 
thereby; reducing the cost of this operation and arriving at better 
conclusions than if each mill had operated independently. 

The principle of rational sawing is to have as much lumber pro- 
duced in the gang saws as possible, so that only a small percentage 
of the log has to be sawn on the smaller machines into laths, broom 
handles, staves, etc., because the sawing of this stock entails a cost 
250 to 300 per cent higher than the gang sawing of lumber. The 
waste also is disproportionately large. 

The number of logs required to cut 1,000 feet board measure of 
lumber varies a great deal. In special cases only 7 logs may be re- 
quired, and in other extreme cases 30 to 35 logs. The usual number 
is 20 to 22 logs. On an average, standard mills require 118 to 120 
cubic feet of raw material, based on top measurement of the logs, to 
produce 1,000 feet board measure of lumber (planks, battens, and 
boards). 

There are people in Sweden who have devoted years to the study 
of sawing schedules, and many valuable tables are published that are 
of material assistance to the Swedish sawmill operators in selecting 
the most suitable sawing schedule for their logs. Not all the mills 
are equally careful in the utilization of the raw material. The most 
efficiently operated mills based their sawing schedules on the following 
factors : 

(1) Top diameter of logs and shape of logs. — The logs are separated 
into different categories, based on each half inch or quarter inch of 
top diameter. This is for the purpose of obtaining the widest pos- 
sible stock of each log with the least possible waste. 

Furthermore, differentiation is often made in the sawing schedules 
between round and oval logs. (It is estimated that at least 80 to 
85 per cent of all logs are oval.) For instance, to cut 3 by 9 inches, 
which is one of the principal stock dimensions, the log must be at 
least 9f inches in top diameter if round and 10 inches if oval. By 
sorting the logs on the one-fourth-inch top diameter, it is possible to 
obtain a larger quantity of lumber than by sorting on the one-half 
inch. 

In the case of oval logs two different schedules are applied. If 
the logs are free from shakes, the schedule is based on sawing the 
logs in such a way that the largest top diameter of the logs is sawed 
parallel with the saw blade; in this way the widest stock is obtained. 
On the other hand, if the log has shakes or splits radiating from the 
center of the logs in the direction of the smallest diameter, the logs 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Special Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. IIY 

must be sawn in such a way that the saw blades cut parallel ^\dth the 
shakes. The top diameter upon which the sawing schedules are 
based in this case is therefore smaller than in the former case, and 
lumber of smaller widths is produced. For instance, perfect oval 
logs 7i inches in minimum top diameter can produce lumber 2^ by 
7 inches; but if the logs are shaky, 7| inches in minimum top diam- 
eter is necessary to produce the same size of lumber. 

(2) Quality. — ^The sawing schedules often contain special instruc- 
tions in regard to the sawing of the different equalities of logs and 
these schedules are made to conform to the grading stipulations. If, 




Fig. 50. — Sawing system passing logs once through the gang saw (top diameter, 12 inches). 

for instance, logs that yield only cull lumber are sawed practically 
square-edged, it is evident that a serious loss of material mil be the 
consequence, as cull lumber admits of a large amount of wane. The 
following example illustrates this point. In order to obtain a piece 
3 by 9 inches, of first quality, the top diameter of the log must not 
be smaller than 12| inches, while the same dimension of third quality 
may be produced from logs 12 inches in top diameter and fourth 
quality from logs llf inches in top diameter. 

(3) Lengths.— Short lengths may be sawn on a different schedule 
from standard lengths on account of the difference in taper. 



118 SWEDISH LUMBER IlfDIJSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

It is seen that the log scaler has an important position, and that 
carelessness in his work may cause heavy losses to the mill. 

Two different methods oi sawing are used in most of the Swedish 
mills working on an efRcient basis: (a) Passing logs once through 
the gang saw and (b) passing logs twice through the gang saw. 

The former system involves a lower labor cost, but each piece of 
lumber must be edged separately in the edger. This is used only for 
small logs 4^ to 7 inches in top diameter. Logs of larger top diame- 
ter are usually passed through the gang twice. By this system the 



' ^y^Tiey board 



t PVar. ?y 



y/y 


3- 


k9- 


3- 


x9' 


x\\X^ 


IV X 8" 
/ board 


%'iYaney 
I'A-xS" 


^^^ 


V/>. 



X 



I" x5- 
' % iVanev hoard_ 



Fig. 51. — Samng system passing logs twice through the gang saw (top diameter, 12 inches). 

first gang slabs two or three boards on two sides of the log. The log 
is then turned over 90 degrees and passed through the next gang, 
located immediately in front of the first gang, and the lumber is cut 
to the required dimension. The lumber produced by this method is 
almost square-edged and only a small percentage of it passes through 
the edger. Much material can be saved by the latter method, 
because the edging of the lumber is done by the first sawing in the 
gang and not in the edger. Thus waney boards are obtained, which 
have a higher market value than edgings. The material utilized is 
about 10 per cent more than by the first method, but the cost of 
sawing is considerably higher, because it requires about 75 per cent 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 119 

more time to pass the logs twice through the gang saw. In addition, 
the average length of the lumber sawn by passing the logs twice 
through the gang is materially increased. 

It is a matter of easy calculation to the Swedish mill operators to 
decide which method pays the best in each case. The cost of labor 
may be high but the increased saving of material amply offsets the 
extra expenditure for the more careful sawing system. Many mills 
in Sweden therefore base their entire production on passing all logs 
twice through the gangs. The system has its drawbacks, however, 
because the amount of wane can not be regulated easily, as practi- 
cally all the lumber is sawn square-edged, except the sap boards. 
This method, therefore, is not profitable in cutting low-grade logs. 

The following sawing schedule, procured from a Swedish authority 
on the subject, shows the dimensions and the cubical contents of 
lumber obtained from a log 18 feet long and 12 inches in diameter, 
containing 14.14 cubic feet: When the log is passed once through 
the gang saw, the dimensions obtained are five-eighths of an inch 
by 4 inches, 1 by 6 inches, 4 by 9 inches, 4 by 9 inches, 1 by 6 inches, 
and five-eighths of an inch by 4 inches, the aggregate cubical 
contents of which is 11.13 cubic feet, not trimmed, or 9.46 cubic feet, 
trimmed; when the log is passed twice through the gang saw, the 
dimensions obtained from the first gang are five-eighths inch waney 
board, 1 by 5 inches, 1 by 5 inches, and five-eighths inch waney 
board, and from the second gang, five-eighths inch waney board, 1 
by 5 inches, 1| by 8 inches, 3 by 9 inches, 3 by 9 inches, 1| by 8 
inches, 1 by 5 inches, and five-eighths inch waney board, the aggre- 
gate cubical contents of which is 11.44 cubic feet, not trimmed, or 
10.64 cubic feet, trimmed. 

The difference in the cubical contents of the lumber produced by 
these two systems may be still greater in some cases. 

The sawing of odd sizes on special orders requires unusual skill on 
the part of the sawyer because salable lumber must be produced 
from the rest of the log; otherwise the mill finds itself with many 
other odd dimensions, for which there is no market. Comparatively 
few mills make a profit on sawing odd dimensions unless they special- 
ize in it. This is especially true at the present time, with the high 
cost of labor, because the sawing of such stock involves extra expend- 
itures, which in many cases are not offset by the extra prices paid. 

In selecting the sawing schedule, attention is usually paid to hav- 
ing the center of the logs cut by the saw blade, except in the case of 
scantlings, which are usually cut from top logs. Otherwise, the 
lumber is liable to become shaky while drying. Many mills, however, 
contend that it is not necessary to have the center cut by the saw 
blades if the lumber is properly piled and seasoned. 

A Swedish authority on sawing schedules (O. Ericson) has issued 
a table showing the different top diameters of saw logs, accompan- 
ied by a set of patterns representing the usual stock sizes of lumber 
for export. By this system, called "the Ericson system," the mill 
operators can easily prepare their own sawing schedules and find 
out in advance how to saw the logs in the most profitable way with- 
out waste by trial sawing, etc. This system is of speciaFvalue in cut- 
ting odd sizes. It is used throughout Sweden and also in Finland and 
Norway. 



120 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

I %' 



%X372" 




6ygX3'/^ 



•"/^x^ 



9" 



SygX3'/2. 




\x3yz 



Fig . 52.— Sawing schedules for logs 10^ and 9 inches in top diameter. The inner circle represents the top 
circumference and the outer circle the butt circumference of the log. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 121 

Crooked logs are sawn on special gang saws, such as were previously 
described. The bend of the logs generally must not exceed 4 inches 
on an average standard log of 18 feet; i. e., the deviation of the log 
axis from a straight line must not exceed 4 inches. Lumber from 
such logs is piled with the bend up so that only the ends of the pieces 
touch the underlying lumber. By the weight of the lumber piled on 
top, it is claimed that the crook disappears by the time the lumber is 
sufficiently dried for shipping. 

Complaints have been heard from time to time from customers 
abroad in regard to such lumber, but these complaints may be due to 
the defective piling system used; opinion on this point differs con- 
siderably among Swedish mill owners. There is no question that 
the saving in material by sawing crooked logs on special gangs is 
considerable; it may be, in some cases, as high as 40 to 50 per cent, 
it is claimed. 

Furthermore, the average length of the lumber is materially in- 
creased because mills not having special gangs for sawing crooked 
logs must crosscut the crooked logs and produce short lumber. 
Crooked logs sawn on ordinary gang saws produce a larger percentage 
of mill ends than those sawn on special gangs. 

The lumber is cut to English measurements in thickness and 
width; the sawing according to other measurements is so rare that it 
may be left out of consideration. It must be noticed, however, that 
it is easy for the Swedish gang saws to be adjusted to cut to any 
measurement; but the handling of lumber cut to many different 
standards would cost the mills a great deal of extra trouble and this 
is why such cutting is rare. 

In all sawing schedules adequate allowance is made for shrinkage, 
but this allowance varies a great deal in the different parts of the 
country, depending upon the climatic conditions, the character of the 
logs, the rate of growth, and whether or not the logs are floated. 
It is therefore almost impossible to give any general rule to cover the 
sawing schedules in all parts of Sweden. It is generally held that the 
gang saws are set to cut to Norwegian inches and that the lumber will 
dry out to English inches. (Norwegian inches are about 3 per cent 
larger than English inches.) 

The following figures, prepared by Forester W. Ekman, show the 
customary allowances for shi'inkage that are made in sawing lumber: 
f and f inch thickness — g^^-inch excess; 1 and IJ inch thickness — 
•^-inch excess; 1^-inch thickness — g\-inch excess; 2 and 2| inch 
thickness — g\-inch excess; 3 and 4 inch thickness — gVii^ch excess; 
4 and 4^ inch width^-^inch excess; 5 and 5| inch width — ^^-inch 
excess; 6 and 7 inch width — |^f-inch excess; 8, 9, and 10 inch width — 
^-inch excess; 11 and 12 inch width — ^-inch excess. 

The lumber is passed from the gang saw to the edger on conveyors. 

EDGING, SORTING, AND TRANSPORTATION. 

The edgerman is one of the most important operators in the mill. 
He must know the grades and the wane permissible in the different 
grades and how to produce the maximum width in each piece of 
lumber, taking into consideration what dimensions are in demand 
and how to obtain them without sacrificing the width of the balance 
of the stock. It is easy to imderstand the importance of having a 



122 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

capable edgerman when it is considered that the difference in price 
per 1,000 feet board measure between 9-inch and 11-inch stock is at 
present $10 to $12. By careless edging thousands of dollars may be 
lost, and many mills contend that the edgerman to a great extent 
decides the profit which the mill is making. 

The lumber is generally edged on the half inch, starting from 3 
inches and going up to 7 inches. For wider stock the lumber is 
usually edged on odd and even inches. The edging of two pieces at 
one time is never seen in standard mills because each piece of lumber 
must have the edgerman's individual attention, even if it requires 
a little longer time to do the work in this way. Stock destined for 
planing purposes is given an unusually large amount of wane. The 
reason for this will be given in a later chapter. It can not be too 
strongly emphasized in connection with Swedish sawmilling that 
careful utilization of the raw material is given the first attention and 
that speed is secondary. The careful edging of the lumber in Sweden 
is striking compared with the practice in many other wood-producing 
coimtries. Swedish lumbermen who have visited other countries 
often comment unfavorably upon the practices, for instance, in 
Austria, where the edging is left to the cheaper class of labor and 
usually to women, who are not physically quanfied for the work. 

The lumber coming from the edger may be roughly trimmed in the 
mill on balanced circular saws, but only in cases where the ends are 
extremely rough. The exact trimming of the stock is not effected 
until the time when shipment is made. 

From the edger the lumber is transported on belts or live rollers to 
the sorting plant located immediately outside of the mill. In this 
sorting plant the lumber is roughly separated into the principal grades 
and sizes. In the most up-to-date plants the lumber is transferred 
to the various sorting tables by a system of switches operated from 
the mill, which reduce the handling to a minimum. The sorting 
plant is built on the same level as the upper sawmill floor and the lum- 
ber is lowered on chutes to cars immediately below each sorting table. 
These cars are then transported to the yard either by electric engines 
or by horses. 

The transportation question in the mill has not always been handled 
in the same efficient way as at present and many old sawmills experi- 
ence considerable trouble in having the mills modernized in this 
respect. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Each mill has usually one or several customers abroad demanding 
special stock, but certain sizes are cut by nearly all the mills, such as 
3 by 9 inches, 2^ by 7 inches, 1 by 4 inches. The followmg are the 
dimensions of pine and spruce for export that are most in demand 
and are considered as stock sizes: 4 by 11 and 9 inches; 3 by 11, 9, 
8, 7, 6, 4^, and 4 mches; 2^ by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6^, and 6 inches (2^ by 9 
and by 8 inches bemg spruce only); 2 by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6^, 6, 5^, 5, 4|-, 
and 4 inches; 1^ by 11, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4^, and 4 inches; 1| by 11, 9, 8, 
7, 6^, 6, 5i, 5, 4i, and 4 inches; 1 by li, 9, 8, 7, 6^, 6, 5^, 5, 4i, 4, 3^, 
and 3 inches. 

Other dimensions usually produced are the followmg: 4 by 8, 7, 
6^, 6, 5, and 4 inches; 3 by 6^, 5^, 5, and 3 inches; 2^ by 5^ and 5 
inches; 2 by 3^ and 3 inches; 1^ by 5^, 3^, and 3 inches; li by 3^ 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 123 



and 3 inches; | by 7, 6^ 6, 5^, 5, 4^, 4, 3^, and 3 inches (all |-inch 
sizes for spruce only); f by 7, 6^, 6, 5^, 5, ^, 4, 3^, and 3 inches; 
f by 7, 6i, 6, 5 J, 5, 4^, 4, 3^, and 3 inches. 

In addition to these dunensions, there may be many others, such 
as, for instance, 12-inch stock, but not many mills can cut 12-inch 
lumber because their logs are too small. 

The demand from one year to another may vary considerably. 
It depends upon the demand in the different countries and the ability 
of other competmg countries to -furnish the material. Russia, for 
example, furnishes a large percentage of Europe's demand for planks 
and when this country was unable to make deliveries, the importers 
turned to Sweden and other north European countries to supply 
this commodity. Some markets may demand large quantities of 
planks (for instance, the British colonial markets) , while other coun- 
tries, such as Germany, specify boards and battens. The stock kept 
on hand depends upon the markets to which a mill caters. It is 
also very important that the sales manager of the mill ascertain in 
advance of each cutting season what. dimensions would be most in 
demand in order to adjust the cutting in the mill. There is, therefore, 
nothing haphazard about the Swedish cutting for stock. 

There are a larger number of dimensions of pine than of spruce. 
Ten-inch stock is generally not much in demand, except in a few 
markets, while 11 inches and 9 inches are stock sizes. The mills' 
ability to cut 9-inch and 11-mch stock is somewhat limited by the 
small log dimensions. Usually the quantity of 11-inch stock does 
not exceed 3 to 5 per cent in most of the mills. Before the war there 
was a growing demand in Sweden for seven-eighth-inch and nine- 
eighth-inch boards, and many mills included these in their regular 
stock lists. Limited quantities of one-half -inch boards may also be 
cut at times. Most of the mills carry three-fourth-inch and five- 
eighth-inch boards in stock. 

The following schedule is representative for some of the larger 
export mills in Norrland, showing the percentages of the different 
widths of lumber produced: 



Widths. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Widths. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


9inches and wider 


Per cent. 
19 
12 

17 
19 


Per cent. 
12 
8 
12 
15 


5J and 5 inches 


Per cent. 
17 
16 


Per cent. 
27 


8 i nches 




26 




Total 




6h and 6 inches 


100 


100 









In other parts of the country the percentage of wide stock is much 
smaller. 

Swedish lumber for export is divided into the f ollowmg categories : 
Planks — 2 inches in minimum thickness and 8h inches in mininmm 
width; battens — 2 inches in minimum thickness and 6 to 8^- inches 
in width; scantlings — 2 inches in minimum thickness and less than 
6 inches in width; boards — less than 2 inches in thickness and 6 inches 
or more in width; narrow boards — less than 2 inches in thickness and 
less than 6 inches in width. The Swedish mills usually produce 
approximately the following percentages of each category: Planks, 
17 per cent; battens, 20; scantlings, 10; boards, 25; narrow boards, 28. 



124 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The quantity of small dimensions of lumber, such as staves, broom 
handles, and similar stock, usually does not exceed 20 per cent of 
the total quantity produced and in many cases it is only 8 to 12 per 
cent. 

Planks are sometimes resawn in the mills into several thicknesses, 
leaving about 6 inches at the end of the plank which is not cut by the 
resaw. This stock is sometimes shipped to certain markets in Africa, 
as it is claimed that the duty on lumber is based on the number of 
pieces and by cutting the stock in this way the duty is only paid on 
one piece. This procedure, however, is not very often followed. 

On account of the small dimensions of the logs, practically no rift 
(vertical) grain is produced. Heart specifications are filled by only 
a few mills, mainly for railroad and ship material; but the output of 
this commodity is so limited that it may almost be left out of con- 
sideration. Most of the mills do not attempt to cut such stock. 

SPECIAL PRODUCTS. 
PAVING BLOCKS. 

From only one district in Sweden is paving-block material being 
supplied. Swedish pine is usually too soft to make an entirely 
satisfactory paving block, but the district of Norrkoping, immediately 
south of Stockholm, has made a specialty of it. Planks 3 by 9 inches 
and 3 by 8 inches are used for this purpose abroad, but blocks are 
seldom manufactured in Sweden. 

There is no doubt that material obtained from the district of Norr- 
koping would give a fairly satisfactory paving material and could 
be successfully introduced in many countries if the exporters from 
this district were willing to make the necessary effort to push this 
article. In several cities in Sweden such paving material has been 
found suitable, and there is no reason why it should not obtain as 
good a result in foreign markets. The Norrkoping paving-block 
material is denser than the Pinus maritima of southwestern France, 
which is used extensively for paving blocks in southwestern Europe. 

SHORT LUMBER. 

Short lumber is considered stock in lengths of 6, 7, and 8 feet. 
Of this stock there is never an excessive quantity in Sweden of 
which the mills can not dispose. The proportion of short lengths 
seldom exceeds 7 per cent for ordinary stock, but it may be as high 
as 20 to 22 per cent for narrow sap boards. As these boards are 
generally fairly clear, however, they nearly always find a good market. 
In all ordinary contracts for export, there is a clause to the effect 
that 3 to 5 per cent of short lengths must be included in each cargo 
at a certain reduction in price. In this way the Swedish exporters 
have been enabled to dispose of most of their short lumber, and 
whatever excess quantity is found on hand may be utilized for other 
purposes. 

STAVES. 

Staves are manufactured into various sizes, according to the use 
and destination. This stock is generally cut for cement and herring 
containers which are made of both pine and spruce. The usual 
dimensions of staves are as follows : One-half inch thick, 3 to 7 inches 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Sepcial Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 125 

wide (small quantity, 2 inches), 24, 26, 28, 29, and 32 inches long, and 
heading 17 to 18 inches long. Sometimes they are nine-sixteenths 
inch thick, 24 inches long, and 2^ to 4 inches wide or five-eighths inch 
thick, 30i inches long, and 2^ to 4 inches wide. The staves are always 
cut square-edged and must be of good, sound quality. 

BROOM HANDLES. 

Broom-handle stock is cut of both pine and spruce, 1 by 1 inch and 
1, 1.25, 1.40 to 2^ meters (1 meter = 3.28 feet); li by li inches and 
1, 1.25, 1.40 to 2^ metere. In Sweden broom handles for export 
generally are not turned but are shipped in squares, because tliese 
broom handles would require expensive packing boxes, and the prices 
are so low that it would not pay the Swedish exporters to turn 
out this stock.- 

LATH. 

Lath is manufactured from both pine and spruce in the following 
dimensions: !{ by 1^ inches, IJ by -^ inches, 1 by 1^ inches, 1 by -^ 
inch, etc., in lengths of 2|, 3, 3|, 4, 4^, and 5 feet. The lath must 
be free from knots and accurately sawn. 

CHARCOAL. 

Charcoal is an important product in Sweden; at least 10 percent 
of all wood cut is manufactured into this commodity. The value 
of the charcoal produced in 1913 was approximately $7,500,000, but 
this figure includes charcoal made in the woods, at the sawmills, and 
in special plants. During the war the price for charcoal increased 
about 300 to 400 per cent above the pre-war figures and this caused 
many miUs to increase their production of this commodity. Even 
old buildings were torn down to be converted into charcoal. In the 
future it is believed that the charcoal industry will somewhat 
decline, as the electric smelting of ore will probably be further devel- 
oped. 

UTILIZATION OF SAWMILL WASTE. 

Even in the most efficiently operated mills, there is always a 
considerable percentage of slabs, edgings, etc., and without close 
utilization of this refuse it is not possible for the sawmiUs to operate 
at a profit. A variety of small-dimension lumber can be cut from 
such waste material. Among the principal kinds are staves, box 
shocks, broom handles, laths, and molding stock. In some plants 
special mill s adjoining the sawmills have been constructed for cuttmg 
this stock. Outside of the mill, charcoal plants are frequently 
constructed for the utilization of slabs and edgings that would not 
be suitable as raw material for smaU-dimension lumber. 

Waste that is not suitable for other purposes is often chipped in 
logs to make raw material for the pulp mills, or it may be trimmed to 
standard lengths for firewood. Some mills have automatic trimmers 
for this purpose. 

During normal times coal costs about $4.50 to $5 per ton, but its 
price increased during the war to about $65 to $80 per ton. Evidently 
the value of the sawmill refuse would show a corresponding increase. 

It is calculated that about 430 cubic feet of sawmill refuse (edgings, 
etc.) is equal to 1 ton of coal and that about 650 cubic feet of sawdust 



126 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

will give the same equivalent. If the price of coal is $4.08 per ton the 
value of the sawmill refuse would be approximately $1.03 per ton. 
If the price of coal is $8 per ton, the value of the refuse would be 
$1.60 per ton. If the price of coal is $13.50, the value of refuse would 
be approximately $3.50 per ton, and so on. The value of refuse is 
calculated net; that is to say, due allowance is made for the trans- 
portation from miU to power plant and extra expenses in the handling 
of refuse in firing. 

The price of sawmill refuse cut into chips for pulp making varied 
considerably in price before the war, but as a rule it was 6 cents to 
8 cents per cubic yard in 1913. In 1918 as much as $1.65 per cubic 
yard was paid for this material. 

In Goteborg, the price for miU ends used for fuel in that city was 
higher than in any other part of the country; in 1918 as much as 
$4 per cubic yard was paid for this material. 

In some plants sawdust is compressed into briquets on special 
machines, using wash waste from the pulp mills as a binder. The 
moisture content of these briquets is about 15 per cent. 

Sawdust may also be ground into wood flour, used in the manufac- 
ture of various articles, including gramophone records and linoleum. 
Sweden's best market for wood flour (usually made of spruce) is the 
United States. Exports of this product to the United States have 
been increasing rapidly and amounted to more than 6,000,000 pounds, 
valued at $32,000, in 1916. 

In passing through a standard Swedish mill one is struck by the 
absence of rubbish. The present generation has not seen any refuse 
burners in Sweden. 

SEASONING. 

AIK-DRYING. 

Most of the standard mills in Sweden have extensive yards and 
their system of seasoning has a world-wide reputation. The size of 
a Sweclish yard may diifer considerably according to locality. In 
the north the yards must be capable of storing a larger percentage 
of the annual production than the mills in the southern sections of 
Sweden. While the mills on the west coast can ship throughout the 
year, the mills in the extreme north must always count on having 
large stocks on hand on account of the limited time during which 
navigation is open. On an average, it may be said that the capacity 
of a yard should be at least one-third of the annual production of 
the mill, but some mills have storage capacity for up to two-thirds 
of their annual production. 

The country is flat at the coast and it is usually easy to find an open 
space convenient for laying out a yard with suitable dock facilities, 
etc. The yards were formerly reclaimed by filling in sawmill refuse, 
but during the war the sawmill refuse was so valuable that several 
mills removed the filling, turning it into raw material for the pulp 
factories, and put sand in its place. San d is considered more suitable 
than sawmill refuse, because the lumber is liable to be discolored when 
piled on decayed sawmill waste. 

As a rule, large yards are provided with a rail system and many 
mills have electric locomotives for transporting lumber from the 
mifl to the yard. The rail system may be laid on the ground or may 
be elevated above the ground. Tlie latter system is expensive and 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 127 



it is claimed that the elevated-rail system to 
some extent presents ventilation in the yard 
and that the lumber is liable to discolor more 
easily than if the rails are laid on the ground. 
On the other hand, the elevated-rail system 
has many advantages. The lumber is more 
easily handled, because it is lowered to the 
ground on special apparatus and this operation 
does not require any special skilled laborers such 
as are needed with the other system where the 
lumber has to be carried on the shoulder 20 or 
25 feet up on top of the piles. The labor situ- 
ation has been difficult for some time. 

Many mills also have electric cranes, auto- 
matic stackers, and other similar devices for 
piling lumber. The cranes are usually consid- 
ered the most satisfactory. Piling with 
mechanical devices often reduces the cost of 
the operation by 50 per cent. 

Characteristic of the better Swedish yards 
is the high base of the piles, usually 2 to 3 feet 
from the ground. This base is frequently built 
up of mill ends in the shape of a pyramid hav- 
ing open spaces between each layer of the 
mill ends, so that the ventilation will be sat- 
isfactory. The piles rest either on sand or on 
a solid wooden floor. A great deal of atten- 
tion is paid to keeping the base of the piles 
perfectly clear of rubbish and other matters 
that are liable to decay and thereby cause the 
lumber to discolor. 

The piles are generally about 25 feet wide 
and up to 29 or 30 feet long and 20 to 22 feet 
high, and they contain 40,000 to 45,000 feet 
board measure of lumber (planks) . They are 
covered with roofs and in cases where the 
yards are equipped with cranes the roof boards 
are nailed, which makes the placing of the 
roof on the piles less troublesome. In the 
better yards, the piles often have triple roofs, 
so that the joints overlap and the piles are 
kept absolutely dry. 

The following schedule gives the number of 
tiers of the different dimensions in the piles 
generally seen in Sweden: 4-inch thickness, 14 to 
16 tiers; 3-inch thickness, 18 to 20 tiers; 2i-inch 
thickness, 28 to 30 tiers; 2-inch thickness, 40 to 
45 tiers ; 1^-inch thickness, 55 to 60 tiers ; 1^-inch 
thickness, 65 to 70 tiers ; 1-inch thickness, 85 to 
90 tiers; f-inch thickness, 115 to 125 tiers. 

From the top of the pile to the top of the 
roof there is generally a distance of about 28 
inches. Sometimes it is necessary to have the 
stock seasoned quickly and the lumber is piled 



/o' 



Fig. 55. 



■ Diagram 
method. 



of piling 



128 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

on edge, with 30,000 to 35,000 feet board measure in the pile. It is 
also claimed that lumber when piled in such a way that the ends are 
projecting from 3 to 4 feet from the piles without having any support 
will dry more rapidly, as the circulation of air is more satisfactory. 
Lumber piled in this way, however, is liable to split at the ends. 

In one case a very practical arrangement was seen of such piling. 
A pile containing, for instance, 3 by 9 inch planks was piled in such a 
way that in each tier one piece 3 by 10 inches was placed at each end 
and one piece in the middle and between these pieces the 3 by 9 inch 
planks were stacked on edge. Other tiers were placed on top of the 
first tier in the same way. (See fig. 55.) When the lumber was dry, 
the 3 by 9 inch planks could easily ])e shoved together and piled 
solid without having to take down the whole pile and repile it again. 
];t was furthermore seen that these piles dried somewhat quicker than 
other piles where the tiers contained one dimension only, because by 
this system of mixing 3 by lO's and 3 by 9 's a more even circulation 
of air was obtained. After the lumber stacked on edge is dry, it is 
piled solid and the piles contain about 80,000 to 100,000 feet board 
measure per pile. 

In the yards, the lower grades and the spruce lumber are piled at 
the center and the better grades and pine lumber are piled at the 
outskirts of the yard, because pine luniber is more liable to discolor 
than spruce. 

Some mills have sheds for the upper gi'ades. In the better 
Swedish yards a great deal of care is given uncovered piles by pro- 
tecting them with tarpaulins. The same applies to truc-ks of lumber 
left in the yard during rain or overnight. As Swedish lumber is not 
sold on specified lengths, all lengths are mixed in the piles, hut each pile 
contains one dimension in regard to thickness and width and one grade 
only. The piles are not given a sloping shape, as is common in the 
United States, but are built on a horizontal foundation. Often the piles 
containing the upper grades of lumber are covered on one or on all 
four sides with weatherboards to protect them from the elements. 

It was particularl}^ noticed in Sweden how careful tlie exporters 
are in storing lumber left over from one season to another on account 
of the inability of the importers to obtain tonnage. Either no charge 
is made for such storage or the charge is very small, but such lumber 
is stored at the owner's risk. 

The lumber is considered sufficiently dry for sliipment when it 
contains approximately 30 per cent of moisture. 

In the northern parts of Sweden the snow during the wintertime 
causes extra work in keeping the alleys and the roads open. From 
the 3"ard to the dock the lumber is transported on a system of con- 
veyors provided with live rollers and operated by electricity. There 
is generally a conveyor for every other aisle in the yard. Some mills 
have a system of sectional conveyors that caii be moved from one 
aisle to another, but it is generally found that the stationary con- 
veyors give better service in the end, although they cost more in con- 
struction. There are, of course, many smaller yards that do not 
have conveyor systems and take the lumber to the dock on trucks, 
but the larger mills all transport their lumber in the way described. 

In regard to the time wliich the lumber requires to be seasoned, it 
is impossible to give any general rule, as the conditions in the dif- 
ferent yards, even in the same districts, vary considerably. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 129 

The following table, however, shows figures compiled by O. Ericson 
for the length of time allowed for seasoning lumber sawn at different 
seasons and shipped to different destinations. These figures are be- 
lieved to be fairly representative of Swedish conditions in general. 



Coimtries of dest 
tion. 


na- 


Sawn 

dunng 

autumn. 


Sawn 
during 
winter. 


Sa'wn 

during 

spring 

and 

summer. 


Countries of destina- 
tion. 


Sawn 

diu-ng 

autumn. 


Sawn 
during 
winter. 


Sawn 

during 

spring 

and 

summer. 


Denmark and Germany 
United Kingdom and 


Months. 
8 

8 
8 


Months. 
4 

4 
4 


Months. 
2 

2 
2 


Southern France 

Spain and Portugal . . . 
British colonial and 
other over-sea markets 


Months. 
8-9 
8-9 


Months. 

4 
4 


Months. 
2J-3 
2J-3 


Northern France. . 


9-10 


6 


4 







From this table it is seen that the lumber must be given special 
care when it is destined for far-away countries, and exporters con- 
tend that such care is well worth while. The passage to these coun- 
tries often lasts a month or more, and if the lumber is put on board 
improperly seasoned it is liable to discolor. The importers take the 
same stand and contend that the small extra charge that they have 
to pay for this careful handling of the lumber is well worth wliile, 
because it is insignificant compared with the total cost of the lumber 
delivered at its destination. 

Owing to the careful seasoning of the lumber, the percentage of 
discolored stock is very small in Sweden, Many mills do not figure 
on a larger percentage of discolored stock than 1 per cent, and in 
some cases even less was reported. The maximum seemed to be 10 
to 12 per cent, and in such cases it was frequently found that the 
logs had been floated for two years and that the discoloration had 
occurred before the lumber reached the mill. The discolored lumber 
is frequently passed through the planing mill, and the discoloration 
partly disappears. The mills are unwilling to include discolored 
stock in large quahtities in the regular stocks of rough lumber for 
export. 

KILN-DRYING. 

Although the system of Idln-drying has been known for years in 
Sweden, it can not be said to have come into general use. In the 
first place, the American methods introduced some time ago did not 
work out very well in Sweden, principally because no consideration 
was given at that time to the different character of Swedish and 
American lumber. However, during late years successful experi- 
ments have been carried on in Sweden, and it is said that at least 
one firm has perfected a system of kiln-drying and used it successfully. 

At present only a small number of mills in the country kiln-dry 
their entire output. Where kilns are found they are generally 
worked in connection with planing mills or box factories. 

The advantages of kiln-dr^dng lumber are not so evident in Sweden 
as they are in the United States. Whereas in the United States fuel 
is very cheap, because the value generally placed on refuse is almost 
nil, in Sweden the value of refuse as a fuel or material for pulp 
making is very high because the country has no coal deposits of its 
own and is dependent upon imports for this commodity. Further- 

2092°— 21 9 



130 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

more, the principal shipping ports in Sweden can not ship throughout 
the year. Therefore, the lumber must be seasoned in the cheapest 
way — by air-drying. 

On the other hand, the Swedish exporters realize the advantages 
of kilns, which would enable them to insure their customers quick 
delivery and also to complete a cargo on short notice, if a shortage 
should be discovered at the time of shipment. This last advantage 
is not so striking in Sweden, because if one mill is short of stock the 
other mills are usually willing to help out. 

For box factories and planing mills, which require lumber con- 
taining about 25 per cent of moisture, kilns would be of good service. 

As far as could be learned, customers abroad have not objected to 
kiln-dried lumber. Nevertheless it can not be denied that kiln dry- 
ing in some parts of Sweden would have limited prospects of success. 
In certain sections of Sweden the logs are taken from mountainous 
districts and the lumber is very knotty. Around most of the knots 
there is a pitch ring, and when such lumber passes through the kiln, 
the knots are liable to fall out. If, however, the plans of the Norr- 
land lumbermen to keep navigation open by ice breakers during 
several months in the winter should be realized, kilns may have a 
better chance. 

GRADING. 

There is no absolutely uniform system of grading in Sweden. Each 
mill has established grades to which it adheres closely year in and 
year out. The grading rules established for each mill have often 
been created by cooperation between buyers and sellers and they are 
usually made up in such a way so as to suit particular markets. It 
often happens that mills with large stands of virgin timber have been 
able in years past to supply comparatively large quantities of the 
upper grades. During late years, these concerns may have partly 
cut out these old stands and the second-growth timber may produce 
only small quantities of the upper grades. In such cases the grading 
rules are not made less strict to conform to the new conditions; the 
cutting out of the old stands only decreases the quantity produced 
of lumber of the upper grades, according to the old-established 
grading rules. This is one of the basic rules of the Swedish lumber 
export trade and is the reason why the exporters have been able to 
maintain the same markets for decades. The importers may com- 
plain at times because they are unable to obtain as large quantities 
of one grade or of several grades as they did in previous years, but 
these complaints do not induce reliable Swedish sliippers to make 
the grading rules less strict by including inferior qualities in the 
upper grades. 

During late years there has been a tendency toward a more uni- 
form system of grading in some districts in Sweden. This may be 
caused by the fact that several individual mill owners have reorgan- 
ized their concerns into stock companies. 

It was formerly a matter of pride to many exporters to be able to 
supply a better grade than their neighbors, and there are still a few 
firms in Sweden that prefer to include only first, second, and third 
grades in their unsorted grade, while all other firms are including 
first, second, third, and fourth grades. The former firms may obtain 
a slightly higher price than the latter firms, but this is no doubt a 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 131 

poor policy because by "sweetening" the grades they lose out in 
the end on the profits realized on the whole production. The only 
benefit to exporters from these practices may be that they obtain a 
reputation for shipping above grade, but this is not considered good 
business. As these firms pass over into stock companies, the matter 
of grading rules is often adjusted to conform to the usual practices 
of gradmg in the particular district where they are located. 

Thus the difi^erent grading rules are based to a large extent on 
conditions of past years, which now have partly ceased to exist, such 
as the possession of old stands allowing a larger percentage of clear 
lumber than lumber cut from second-growth forests, etc. As these 
forests are gradually cut out, the production of the various saw- 
mills is made more uniform, thereby paving the road for a uniform 
gradmg system for the different districts. This matter has already 
been given consideration in Sweden and no doubt will be taken up 
seriously. A branch of the Swedish Exporters' Association in the 
Hernosand district appointed a commission some years ago to 
establish uniform grading rules for all the association members in 
that district. An abstract of these rules is given at the end of this 
section. Uniform gradmg rules for the entire country probably 
would not be advisable, owing to the differences in the character of 
the timber in the various sections. 

Swedish lumber is generally graded into unsorted grade, fifth, and 
sixth grades. Sometimes, particularly in southern Norrland and 
the districts around Lake Wenner, the lumber is classified into first, 
second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades. These two systems of 
grading are dependent upon the mills' supply of the upper grades. 
Generally the small percentage of the upper grades obtainable does 
not make the grading into more than three grades profitable. Some 
mills may grade a few dimensions into six grades and the remainder 
into three grades. 

The unsorted grade is composed of first, second, third, and fourth 
grades and may be termed sound construction lumber. A very smaU 
amount of discoloration is admitted in tliis grade and practically no 
rotten knots or similar serious defects. It is difficult to compare tliis 
grade with any corresponding grade for the principal species of 
softwoods in the United States, such as southern yellow pine and 
Douglas fir. It seems, however, that the maximum defects allowed 
in the unsorted grade would probably correspond to the medium 
quality of No. 2 common of southern yellow pine and Douglas fir, 
but the Swedish rules are stricter in regard to discoloration and 
allow no variation in sawing. 

The fifth grade of Swedish lumber may be termed better-class 
cull lumber, which is used for construction purposes where strength 
and durability are not serious considerations. This grade is service- 
able and is put to many uses for temporary construction purposes, 
etc. The sixth grade is cull lumber, which is not expected to have 
lasting qualities and is not serviceable for ordinary construction 
purposes. It is used locally to a great extent for lagging, board- 
walks, and similar purposes where the lumber would be liable to 
deteriorate in a short time, and also for cheaper kinds of temporary 
construction. 

In some mills, particularly in the northern part of Norrland, 
another grade of cull lumber may be established, called seventh 



132 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

grade. The only requirement for lumber of this grade is that it 
must not fall to pieces when handled. This stock is not exported, as 
the freight would often amount to more than the lumber is worth. 

The foregoing grading s}^stem applies to pine lumber. Spruce 
lumber generally is not divided into more than three grades — un- 
sorted (comprising first, second, third, and fourth grades), fifth, and 
sixth grades. The same grading rules apply to spruce as to pine, 
but spruce lumber generally does not yield any large percentage of 
the upper grades on account of the presence of a large number of 
small knots. The knots of the spruce are not so conspicuous as 
those of pine and are generally not so large. Spruce often yields a 
disproportionately large percentage of cull lumber because older 
stands of spruce are liable to decay. Only a few concerns in Sweden 
use six grades for spruce. 

There is a considerable difference between Swedish first and second 
grades and the corresponding grades in the United States. Clear 
lumber in the American sense of the word is seldom seen in Sweden 
and both first and second grades admit of a few knots. Some firms 
in Sweden at times may separate clear sap boards, which are pro- 
duced in small quantities, and sell these separately to special cus- 
tomers abroad or to the local furniture factories. 

Contrary to many grading rules in the United States, the Sweaish 
grading rules do not allow the mixing of different species. Further- 
more, the Swedish grading rules do not make provisions for miscuts 
or scant lumber. Whether cull stock or first grade is produced, it 
must have the required dimensions, no more, no less. When any 
scant or miscut lumber is produced, it is either resawn, or better, 
cut into stock for the planing mills. One will notice with surprise 
that many Swedish contracts for lumber exports stipulate that up 
to 10 per cent of blue lumber may be included in each cargo. The 
Swedish exporters always believe in playing safe, and although this 
stipulation allows the shippers to include this large percentage of 
discolored lumber, all the reputable shippers take great care to avoid 
shipping such stock because if they went to the limit in this respect 
it would not be long before their reputation would be seriously 
affected. 

To many American shippers it may seem that the grading rules for 
the Swedish upper grades are somewhat lax, but it must be considered 
that the stocks are always well manufactured and carefully seasoned, 
and this circumstance, in connection with the efficient marketing 
methods, to a great extent offsets the defects, such as knots. It 
must be noticed that the Swedish grading rules do not make any 
provision for rift grain or flat grain, sapwood or heartwood. In 
regard to the texture of the wood there are no written regulations, 
but, as a general rule, very coarse-grained lumber would not be 
included in the upper grades. 

In one respect, however, may it be said that the Swedish grading 
rules have changed somewhat, namely, in regard to the amomit of 
wane permissible. Decades ago Swedish lumber was usually sawn 
square edged. A number of mills in Norway started to cut certain 
stocks with a wane, as it was realized that lumber for certain construc- 
tion purposes could take a reasonable amount of wane without inter- 
fering with its usefulness. The Swedish miUs adopted this system of 
cutting waney stock and the amoimt of wane has been somewhat 



SWEDISH LUMBER iNiDUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 133' 

increased during the last decade; but in each case this matter has 
been taken up first with the importers. The amount of wane speci- 
fied in the grading rules quoted later may seem somewhat large to 
shippers in the southern part of Norrland, where several mills are 
cutting perfectly square-edged lumber; but these mills obtain some- 
what better prices for their product than the mills in the Hernosand 
district, to which these rules chiefly apply. 

(In regard to the percentage of lumber produced of the various 
grades, see chapter on "Shipping regions.") 

The lack of uniform gradmg rules for all mills is a disadvantage 
theoretically, but it is claimed by both the importers and the Swedish 
shippers that as long as there is so small a difference in the grading 
rules of the different mills in each district, this matter is of small 
importance. The importer always knows the character of the ship- 
ment of each exporter. Uniform grading rules in other countries are 
often so elastic that they give the exporters considerable opportunity 
to vary the character of their shipments, whereas in Sweden the 
exporters adhere closely to the rules. 

Swedish exporters are especially careful to have their lumber 
shipped up to grade when the prices of lumber decline. Experience 
has taught them that importers, having bought at top price, are 
very particular in regard to the quality of these shipments, because 
it is felt by many importers that a claim may make up for the loss. 

The Swedish standards of grading were not changed during the 
war in spite of the fact that conditions in the importing countries 
often prevented the importers from inspecting the cargoes with their 
usual care. There were, of course, some unscrupulous exporters or 
export merchants shipping almost any quality, but these firms are 
rated as war profiteers and have no standing among the reliable 
exporters in Sweden. 

The following is a summary of the standard Swedish grading rules 
for sawn lumber (district of Hernosand) , based on rules compiled by 
O. Ericson: 

These rules are based on pine and spruce lumber 3 by 9 inches and 16 to 17 feet in 
average length, and each of the defects mentioned denotes the maximum admitted 
for each defect in the various grades. The defects admitted in the other dimensions 
are to be in proportion to the cubical contents of these dimensions compared with the 
above-mentioned basis, 3 by 9 inches. The number of defects admitted naturally 
is dependent upon the length of the pieces and will be in proportion to the above- 
stated average. 

STANDARD DEFECTS. 

Knots. — ^The diameter of the knots should be considered as the average diameter. 

Sound knot is considered a knot firmly embodied in the wood and as solid as the 
wood surrounding it. 

Black knot is a knot containing pitch and black in color. 

Incased knot is a knot surrounded by bark or pitch. 
_ Rotten knot is a knot not so hard as the wood surrounding it. Loose knots are con- 
sidered in the same class as rotten knots. 

Pin knot is a sound knot not exceeding one-half inch in diameter. 

Rot or decay is any form of decay that may be evident, either as a dark-red discol- 
oration or as white or red rotten spots. 

Shakes and splits are usually a separation of the wood between the annual rings 
occurring during the process of seasoning (season checks), or caused by frost, wind, 
etc., in the forest. 

Pitch pockets are openings between the grain of the wood containing pitch or baik 

Wormholes. — There are two principal kinds of wormholes; Pin wormholes, gen- 
erally not exceeding one-sixteenth inch in diameter, and gi-ub wormholes, which are 
larger than the pin wormholes, up to about one-fourth inch diameter. 



134 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, 

Wane is bark on the edge of lumber. 

Discoloration is incipient rot of the sapwood caused by fungi, either during the 
process^ of seasoning or between the felling and the time the log reaches the mill. 
Such discoloration often occurs during floating. 

FIRST GRADE. 

Knots. — Three to four sound knots, up to three-foiu-ths inch in diameter, and a rea- 
sonable number of pin knots are admitted, but no rotten knots are tolerated in this 
grade. Small, black pin knots may be allowed, provided these knots do not extend 
through the piece. The edges must be free from knots. 




Fig. 56. — Maximum sizes of knots permitted in different grades (actual size). 

Rot or decay is not admitted in any form in this grade. 

Shakes and splits. — No wind-shakes are allowed in this grade. Only a limited num- 
ber of very small shakes, not exceeding one-fourth inch in depth and not extending 
beyond two-thirds of the length of the piece, may be allowed, but these shakes must 
occur only on one side. No shakes are admitted on the edges. 

"fitch pockets and wormholes are not admitted in this grade. 

Wane^ on one edge only must not extend over more than 15 per cent of the length 
of the piece; wane on both edges must not extend over more than 10 per cent of the 
length. 

Discoloration. — The lumber of this grade must be strictly bright, although a few 
slightly discolored spots caused by crosspieces in piling may be admitted. 

SECOND GRADE. 

Knots. — Three or four sound knots, not exceeding 1|- inches in diameter and another 
three or four sound knots, not exceeding 1 inch in diameter, may be admitted, besides 

1 The amount of wane in each grade is given in a special table at the end of this section. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 135 

a few smaller knots. Not more than 2 black knots of up to 1 inch in diameter and 2 or 3 
black knots not exceeding three-fourths inch in diameter are allowed. Encased 
knots are allowed in somewhat smaller number and sizes than black knots. No rotten 
knots are allowed. Sound knots more than 1 inch in diameter must not occur on the 
edges. 

Rot is not admitted in aiiy form. 

Shakes mid splits. — No wind-shakes are allowed in this grade. Shakes occmring 
on one side only must not exceed one-half inch in depth. If shakes occur on both 
sides, they must be smaller in proportion. One small shake on the edge is admitted 
if running parallel with the fibers. A few small pitch pockets are admitted in this 
grade. 

Wormholes are not allowed in this grade. 

Wane. — If wane occm's on one edge only, it miLst not exceed 20 per cent of the length 
of the piece ; if it occurs on both edges, it must not exceed 15 per cent of the length of the 
piece. 

Discoloration that has been incurred during the process of seasoning is admitted in a 
very light form on one edge. If occurring on one side the discoloration must not 
exceed 1 inch in width and must not extend beyond 50 per cent of the length of the 
piece. Two small discolored spots caused by crosspieces are allowed. 

THIRD GRADE. 

Knots. — Five or six sound knots not exceeding 2f inches in diameter, and a reason- 
able amount of smaller knots are admitted. Three to four black knots not exceeding 
1 J inches in diameter may pass in this grade. Encased knots are admitted in about 
the same number and sizes as black knots. One slightly rotten knot may be admitted, 
but it must not exceed 1 inch in diameter. 

Decay and rot. — Loose rot is not admitted. One solid rotten streak not extending 
very deeply into the piece is admitted, but the length must not exceed 4 feet and 
the width must not exceed one-fourth inch. A proportionally larger amount of incip- 
ient rot is admitted, provided the rot is not too prominent. 

Shakes and splits. — One medium-sized wind-shake is admitted, extending up to 25 
per cent of the length of the piece. Heart-shakes and similar splits are admitted not 
.exceeding 1 inch in depth, extending up to 60 per cent of the length of the piece. 
If these shakes occur on both sides of the piece, such shakes must be proportionally 
smaller. Three shakes occurring on the edges and running in a diagonal direction 
through half of the width of the edge are allowed, but these shakes must be very li?!:ht 
and must not cross one another. If the shakes extend parallel with the grain of the 
wood, they may be larger. A few small pitch pockets may be admitted, but they 
must not penetrate the piece. 

Wormholes. — Three pin wormholes may be allowed in this grade and a few grub 
wormholes extending through 15 per cent of one edge. 

Wane. — If wane occurs on one edge only, it must not exceed 30 per cent of the 
length of the piece; if found on both edges, it must not exceed 25 per cent of the length 
of the piece. 

Discoloration. — Blue lumber cut from discolored logs may be admitted in this grade 
if the discoloration occurs on one edge and on the one face side, but the discoloration 
on the face side must not exceed 1 inch in width and 50 per cent of the length of the 
piece. If the discoloration is caused dming the process of seasoning, it is admitted 
on one edge and 1| inches in width on one face side, but it must not extend beyond 
two-thirds of the length of the piece. Five small discolored spots caused by cross- 
pieces may be admitted. 

FOURTH GRADE. 

Knots. — Six or seven sound knots not exceeding 3J inches in diameter anrl a rea- 
sonable amount of smaller knots may be admitted in this grade. Not more than fom- 
black knots not exceeding 2 inches in diameter may be allowed. Encased knots 
may be admitted in the same number and sizes as black knots. Three rotten knots 
not exceeding 1\ inches in diameter or tln-ee slightly decayed knots not exceeding 1^ 
inches in diameter may be allowed. 

Decay and rot.- — Loose rot is not permissible in this grade. One solid rotten streak 
on one side of the piece not exceeding 1^ inches in width and up to 20 per cent of the 
length of the piece is admitted. One entire edge may have incipient rot, provided 
that no other kinds of decay are found on the piece. 

Shakes and splits. — One large wind-shake is admissible, but it must not extend beyond 
60 per cent of the length of the piece and must not penetrate the plank. If beside 
this shake several smaller wind-shakes are found, the large shakes must be proportion- 
ally smaller. Heart-shakes and similar shakes are admitted extending up to 70 per 



136 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

cent of the length of the piece and may partly penetrate the piece at one end. Four 
small shakes extending diagonally across the edge and five shakes extending through 
half of the width of the edge are allowed. Wide pitch pockets extending up to 20 per 
cent of the length of the piece may be admitted, if they are not of any considerable 
depth, but if penetrating the piece, the length must be shorter. 

Wormholes. — Up to six small wormholes are admitted on one edge of the piece only, 
but they must not penetrate the plank. Some light grub wormholes are admitted 
throughout one edge. 

Wane. — If wane occurs on one edge only, it must not extend beyond 40 per cent of 
the length of the piece; if found on both edges, it must not exceed 35 per cent of 
the length of the piece. 

Discoloration. — Lumber cut from discolored logs is admitted in this grade and the 
discoloration may occur on both edges. The discoloration on the one face must not 
exceed 1^ inches in width and must not extend beyond two-thirds of the length of 
the piece. Discoloration caused by defective seasoning is admitted on one edge and 
up to 3 inches in width on one face side of the piece along its entire length. However, 
if the discoloration occurs to this extent,it miist be of a very light nature. Six to eight 
spots caused by crosspieces are admitted. 

FIFTH GRADE. 

Knots. — Sound knots and encased knots are admitted in almost any number and 
size. Of black knots not more than six are allowed, which must be not more than 
3^ inches in diameter. Slightly decayed knots must not exceed four in number and 
2| inches in diameter. Not more than four rotten knots not exceeding If inches in 
diameter may pass. The rotten knots must not penetrate the piece. 

Decay. — Loose rot may occur in small spots. Solid rot may be admitted up to 30 
per cent of the length of the piece, partly penetrating the piece. Incipient rot may 
be admitted in any quantity. 

Shakes. — Wind-shakes may be admitted partly penetrating the piece throughout 
the entire length, but shakes at the ends must not be too open. Heart-shakes may be 
admitted penetrating the piece and extending throiigh the entire length. Splits on 
the edges, nmning in a diagonal direction, not exceeding one-sixteenth inch in width, 
are admitted. If shakes nm parallel with the grain, they may be somewhat larger. 
Pitch pockets may be large and penetrate the piece but must not exceed 50 per cent 
of the length of the plank. 

Wormholes may be admitted in almost any reasonable quantity and niunber. 

Wane. — If wane occurs on one edge it must not exceed 60 per cent of the length of 
the piece, if it occurs on both edges it must not exceed 55 per cent of the length of the 
piece. As a general rule, the edges touched by the saw must not be narrower than 1 
inch, and the sawn face of the plank 5^ inches in minimum width. 

Discoloration may occur in almost any form and quantity. 

SIXTH GRADE. 

Knots. — Almost any kind of knots and in any number pass in this grade, but only a 
limited number of rotten knots are admitted, if they penetrate the piece. 

Decay and rot. — Loose rot may be admitted in the form of rotten streaks penetrating 
the piece, and rotten spots. Loose rot must not occur wider than 1 inch at one end of 
the piece. Solid rot may be admitted in unlimited quantity. 

Shakes of any kind are admitted, but the plank must not fall to pieces when handled. 

Wormholes are admitted in any mmiber and size. 

Wane is admitted in almost any size, but the sawn-face side of the plank must be at 
least 3 inches wide. 

Discoloration. — Any amount of discoloration is admitted in this grade. 

SEVENTH GRADE. 

This grade represents an inferior grade of cull lumber and admits of almost any 
defects. 

UNSORTED GRADE. 

Unsorted grade, being composed of first, second, third, and fourth grades, may con- 
tain any defects admitted in these four grades. However, the total amount of defects 
allowed in the imsorted grade must be in proportion to the quantity of each of the four 
grades in the unsorted grade. For instance, if two rotten knots are admitted in fourth 
grade and if fourth grade represents 50 per cent of the unsorted grade, the imsorted 
grade would admit not more than one rotten knot. As the percentage of first, second, 



Special Agents Series No, 195. 




FIG. 57.— BALANCED CIRCULAR TRIMMER. 




FIG. 58.— STAVE CUTTER. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 59. — EDGER. 




FIG. 60.— LOG CARRIAGE. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 137 

third, and fourth grades produced by the various mills may differ to some extent, it 
is evident that general grading rules can not be given for the unsorted grade to cover 
all cases without taking this question into consideration. 



WANE ALLOWANCES. 



The following table shows the customary amount of wane allowed for different 
dimensions of Swedish pine and spruce, according to figures compiled by O. Ericson. 
The figures represent the base of the triangle formed by the wane on two edges. 



Dimensions. 



4 by 9 inches . . 
4 by 8 inches.. 
4 by 7 inches . . 
4 by 6 inches . . 
4 by 5 inches.. 
3 by 9 inches.. 
3 by 8 inches.. 
3 by 7 inches.. 
3by 6 inches.. 
3 by 5 inches.. 
2J by 9inches. 
2J by 8 inches. 
2iby 7 inches. 
2J by 6 inches. 
2Jby 5 inches. 
2 by 9 inches . . 
2by Sinches.. 
2 by 7 inches.. 
2by 6 inches.. 
2 by 5inches.. 
IJ by 9 Inches. 
IJby 8inches. 
IJby 7inches. 
l| by 6inches. 
IJ by 5 inches. 
IJby 9 inches, 
li by 8 inches, 
liby 7 inches. 
IJby 6 inches. 
IJby 5 inches. 
IJ by 9 inches. 
IJ by 8 inches. 
l| by 7 inches . 
l| by 6 inches. 
Ijby 5 inches. 
1 by 9 inches.. 
1 by 8 inches . . 
1 by 7 inches . . 
1 by 6 inches . . 
1 by 5 inches . . 
i by 9 inches . . 
I by 8 inches . . 
I by 7 inches . . 
I by 6 inches . . 
I by 5 inches . . 
J by 6 inches . . 
J by 5 inches . . 
J by 4 inches . . 
f by 6 inches.. 
I by 5 inches . . 
I l)y 4 inches . . 
i by 6 inches.. 
I by 5 inches . . 
I by 4 inches . . 



First 
grade. 



Second 



Inches. 



Third 
grade. 



m 

■ 111 
lit 

1^1 



Fourth 



2A 

ni 

ni 

lil 

m 

IH 
UJ 

It J 

m 

IH 
lA 

lA 



Fifth 
grade. 



2|f 

2n 

21-1 
2^1 

m 

2ii; 
2 



Sixth 
grade. 



Inches 



4A 

065 

3M 

m 

3 

211 
2M 
2n 
2Ji 
2il 
2JI 
241 
2A 

n% 

2-h 



a 



a XTnsorted grade. 

The wane allowed in the different dimensions is based on the end area of each 
piece. The extent of the wane allowed for the other dimensions not specified in the 
above tables can easily be ascertained by taking into consideration their propor- 
tionate end area. The wane for sixth quality varies a great deal and may be some- 
what larger than the figure given in the foregoing table. In the smaller dimensions 
the wane allowed is somewhat larger in proportion to other dimensions. If the wane 
occurs on one edge only, the figures in the table may be increased by 25 to 30 per cent. 



138 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



TRIMMING. 



On the dock there are several trimming sheds, which are movable 
up and down the pier on a track. The trimming sheds are provided 
with circular saws operated by electricity. The saws have a large 
number of teeth in order to give the ends of the lumber a clean-cut 
appearance, as if it were planed. Some old-fashioned mills trim by 
hand, but this is very inefficient and expensive and is never practiced 
b}'^ the standard mills. 

Z^'' Grade ai/erage 

2ND .. average 

3"^° " average 

4 r// „ average 

^TH „ average 

QTH „ average 

g TH „ maximum 






Fig. CI. — Average amount of \raiie permissible in various grades of a 

half actual size). 



by 9 inch plank (end view nearly 



The trimming sheds are attached to the end of the conveyor and 
the lumber is carried by the rollers to the trimming table, where it 
is graded and the proper lengths are marked on each piece. Some- 
times customers require that the length of each piece be designated 
on one side in crayon. The grader carefully turns over each piece 
in order to determine the grade and also to raise the grade of the 
piece by trimming if this can be done profitably. 

It must be noticed, however, that Swedish lumbermen do not sacri- 
fice the length of a piece of lumber unless the grade of the piece can 
be raised at least 2 points. For instance, a plank qualified as third 
grade would not be crosscut into two pieces, one of second and one 
of third grade; but if one piece of first grade and one piece of third 
grade could be obtained, the piece would probably be crosscut pro- 
vided both pieces would be of commercial lengths (9 feet and up). 

It must also be closely observed by the grader that the average 
length of each plank, batten, scantling, and board must not be 
spoiled by crosscutting in order to raise the grade in such a way that 
the general average of the cargo would consist of lumber not having 
the average length required in each category. The grader takes 
enough time to do his work carefully, as it is an easy matter for the 
sawmiU coinpany to figure out which would pay the better, to save 
a few dollars per week in labor by having the lumber graded superfi- 
cially or to spend a little extra money and be assured that the 
standard of grades would be maintamed. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 139 

The butt end of the piece is first sUghtly touched by the saw, 
whereby about a half inch is trimmed off. Then the top end of the 
piece is trimmed to the proper length, giving each piece a slight 
excess of about one-fourth or one-half of an inch. The general rule 
is that the crayon mark must be left on the piece after it is trimmed. 
Swedish lumber, therefore, is never cut short. If there is any devia- 
tion from the lengths specified in the contract, it is rather a trifle 
too long. 

Swedish lumber is trimmed to different standards of measurement, 
according to the country of destination. If it goes to the United 
Kingdom or the British colonies, it is 'trimmed to English feet; if it 
goes to France, it is trimmed to metric measurements; if it goes to 
Spain, it is trimmed to Spanish feet, etc. This is easy to do because 
it simply requires changing the measuring rod attached to the 
trimming table, and does not imply any extra labor. 

The following schedule gives an idea of the different standard 
measurements cut by a company in northern Sweden: 69 per cent 
of the quantity shipped was cut to English feet; 7 per cent to 
Danish feet (1 Danish foot = 0.9711 English foot); 8 per cent to 
metric feet (1 metric foot = J meter =1.0936 English feet); 7 per 
cent to Spanish feet (1 Spanish foot =1.0783 English feet); 4 per 
cent to Dutch feet (1 Dutch foot =1.0768 English feet); 4 per cent 
to German feet (1 German foot = 1.0639 English feet) ; 1 per cent to 
decimeters (1 decimeter = 3 y|-inches). The lumber is always trim- 
med to odd and even feet. 

It is realized by the Swedish lumbermen that this system is waste- 
ful, and a strong movement was started some time ago to trim aU 
lumber either to metric measurements or to English measm'ements. 
The logs in the forest are aU cut to English feet and when they are 
trimmed to a different standard it is evident that a loss must result. 
It is generally figured that 6 to 12 per cent constitute mill ends under 
the present conditions. The smaller the unit of the standard length 
measurem.ent the smaller the percentage of mill ends. 

The movement also contemplates trimming on the half foot or on 
the decimeter. An exporter in Sweden estimated that such a step 
would save the Swedish lumber exporters at least $3,000,000 to 
$4,000,000 a year, because it would save lumber and also increase 
the average length of the product, on which basis the lumber of all 
Swedish mills is sold. 

It is expected that the members of the Finnish and Swedish Lumber 
Export Associations will come to an agreement whereby lumber for 
export in both countries shall be trimmed to English measurements 
only.^ 

Each shipper sells his products on an average-length basis. The 
lengths of lumber of different categories may vary somewhat in the 
various parts of Sweden. Southern Sweden ships very short lengths, 
for example. The Sundsvall district, in Norrland, has possibly the 
longest average lengths. Farther south the average lengths are 
somewhat less. The variations between the average lengths in the 
different districts in Norrland are not very considerable. 

2 This agreement has been consummated since this report was written. 



140 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



The following table gives the average lengths of the different dimen- 
sions and grades of pine and spruce in Norrland: 



Kinds of lumber. 



Planks (11-9 inches) 

Battens : 

Sinches 

land 6J inches 

6inches 

Scantlings (Si and 4 inches) 
Boards : 

9inches 

Sinches 

7 and 6 inches 

5Jand Sinches 

4|inch&s 

4 inches 



Unsorted grade. 



Pine. Spruce. 



Feet. 
16-17 

15.', 

15i 

15 

14-15 

16 
15* 
15" 
14i 
14" 
12-13 



Feet. 
16 

15 
15 

i^ 
14-15 

14 
14 
14 
134 
13-14" 
11-12 



Fifth grade. 



Pme. Spruce. 



Feet. 
16 

15 
14i 
14 
14 

13-14 
13-14 
13-14 
12-13 
12-13 
11-12 



Feet. 



14i 

13-14 
13-14 
13-11 

13-14 
13-14 
13-14 
12-13 
12-13 
11-12 



In the trimming shed a large quantity of ends of boards, planks, 
battens, and scantlings accumulates. These mill ends are carefully 
retrimmed into lengths of 12 inches, 18 inches, etc., up to and in- 
cluding 5^ feet. In some cases even lengths of 6 inches are taken. 
This wood is called split wood and finds a ready market in England, 
Denmark, and other countries, where it is used as raw material for 
box shooks, kindling wood, etc. With the growth of the Swedish 
box-shook industry during late years, these mills utilize the mill 
ends themselves, and in the future mill ends, at least of the better 
class, probably will not be exported. Whatever is left of miU ends 
shorter than 6 inches or 12 inches is carefully gathered and either is 
used for firewood or is cut into chips for pulp material. After the 
shipping season is over, there is hardly a piece of waste material left 
on the dock. 

LOADING. 

Previous to the arrival of a steamer in the port, the lumber to go 
on that steamer is loaded into barges, usually protected on all four 
sides with walls and provided with a roof. These barges may hold 
25,000 to 150,000 feet board measure. The lumber is tallied and 
inspected in the barges. 

The last operation is to brand the lumber, wliich is done by hand 
using a dye made by the mills themselves of a composition similar 
to gelatine. The brands are put on by boys, and the expense is 
almost insignificant seldom exceeding two to five cents per 1,000 feet. 
There is one size of brand for each dimension so as to cover the entire 
surface of the ends, and the brands are very carefully put on, some- 
times at both ends of each piece so that the brand may always be 
visible when the lumber is piled in the importers' yards. Split wood, 
staves, etc., and inferior cull lumber usually are not branded; but 
every other piece of lumber for export is provided with the shippers' 
brand. The question of branding will be discussed in detail in a 
later section. 

The following statement gives an approximate idea of an average 
loading schedule. A crew of 4 men can trim, grade, and load in one 
day the following quantities of different dimensions: 1 by 6 inches, 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 141 

23,000 feet board measure; 2^ by 7 inches, 38,000 feet; 3 by 9 inches, 
55,000 feet; narrow boards, 24,000 feet. 

After the barges are loaded, they are towed alongside the vessel 
and the lumber is taken on board. The responsibility of the shipper 
ceases when the lumber leaves the dock if the cargo is sold on an 
f. o. b. basis. But the exporters at times place their own foremen on 
board the vessel to insure that the lumber is properly taken care of 
and to see that manila rope is used whenever possible in order to 
prevent damage. 

lioading is not effected during a rain, unless the captain should 
demand that this be done. In such cases, a protest is taken out by 
the shippers stating this fact in order to relieve themselves of responsi- 
bility in case any claim for discoloration should ensue. The same 
also applies if the captain has overestimated the capacity of the 
vessel and loads on the deck part of the cargo that should be loaded 
in the hold. 

Spruce and discolored lumber are usually piled on deck. On 
account of the short shipping season in Norrland, from which 
about 75 per cent of Sweden's exports of lumber is exported, the 
shipping must necessarily be rushed, but on the other hand, long 
hours and almost daylight nights make it possible to load both day 
and night during the summer. 

On an average, 200,000 to 250,000 feet board measure are taken 
on board per shift of 10 hours. Only in rare cases are the vessels 
loaded from the dock. In many districts a number of mills are lo- 
cated in the same ports. In such cases it is easy to arrange for ship- 
ments of parcel lots and have the barges towed a few miles to the 
nearest place of loading. Such parcel shipments may often be 
effected without any great increase in freight. By this system the 
exi)orters may easily dispose of their stocks in smaller lots, which 
facilitates sales. These conditions are especially noticeable in the 
Hernosand district. 

INSPECTION IN PORT OF SHIPMENT. 

Importers have found it desirable to exercise a direct control over 
lumber shipments from some exporting countries by having their 
own inspectors in the port of loading. It is understood that this has 
been the custom, for instance, in the Russian Baltic ports. Such 
plans no doubt would be opposed vigorously by the Swedish mills. 
At least, such inspections are not heard of in connection with planed 
and rough lumber exported from that country. The exporters 
point out the fact that if anything is wron^, they are willing to make 
it right and that every piece of lumber is branded and that they 
have also instituted a system of arbitration in foreign countries 
which makes it possible for the importers immediately to take up 
the question of claims with these representatives. This arbitration 
system w411 be discussed in another chapter. 

LABOR AND WAGES. 

During normal times the sawmill laborers were steady and did not 
shift about a great deal. The hiring and discharging of men in 
Sweden is generally rather complicated, and the mill owners have 



142 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

realized the important bearing of a permanent crtew on the uni- 
formity of the product from year to year. Therefore the larger 
Swedish sawmill owners, for instance, have built homes for their 
men and sometimes provide land for growing the necessary articles 
of food. In some mills there are clubhouses, assembly rooms, bath- 
houses, laundries, etc., and free medicine and doctor's attendance 
are generally provided. If figured in money, these benefits in normal 
times would amount to 14 to 20 per cent of the wages paid; but it 
should be borne in mind that they are not offered by all the mills. 
Some mil] owners have also established special benefit funds and 
look after their men when incapacitated by old age, so that the men 
often stay with the same mills throughout their lives. Special offi- 
cers of the sawmill companies are often detailed to look after the 
men's welfare. Liability insurance is compulsory by law. During 
the war the sawmill owners facilitated the buying of food, etc., for 
the men and when the mills shut doAvn for one reason or another, 
the owners generally made other provision for the men in regard to 
work. 

The Swedish people enjoy exceptional educaCional facilities and 
the percentage of illiterates is smaller there than in most other coun- 
tries in the world. Furthermore, there has been a better chance for 
the workingman to advance himself than in most other European 
.countries. Many prominent Swedish operators have established 
their present position from a very modest start. 

The following statement, from a Russian authority, gives the out- 
put per laborer in an average-sized mill in Sweden and in the Arch- 
angel district of northern Russia: Minimum, 100,000 feet board 
measure in Sweden and 40,000 feet in Archangel; maximum, 150,000 
feet in Sweden and 64,000 feet in Archangel. These figures may 
show, however, not only the greater efficiency of the Swedish saw- 
mill operators but also the better equipment of the Swedish mills. 

The Swedish workmen do not work exceptionally fast but they are 
conscientious and practical in their work. Frequently sawmill la- 
borers in Sweden make inventions or improvements on sawmill ma- 
chines and also in methods of handling lumber. In other words, the 
Swedish workman uses his head and is dependable. 

The foremen in different mills located m the same district some- 
times have local associations to discuss problems pertaining to their 
work, such as grading and mill operations. 

Labor questions are handled through the Lumber Manufacturers 
Employers' Association, to which are referred all controversies be- 
tween the mill operators and their men and which devotes its whole 
time to labor questions. In Sweden there is no rush of labor from one 
sawmill section of the country to another to obtain higher wages, 
owing to the work of this association, which establishes the scale of 
wages to be paid by all its members. The workmen also are organ- 
ized. 

INCREASED COST OF LIVING. 

The pre-war wages in Sweden were not so high as those paid in the 
United States, but the cost of living in Sweden was very low before 
the war. The increase in living cost from July, 1914, to January, 
1919, is shown by the following schedule, taken from official sta- 
tistics, for a family spending about $536 per year before the war: July, 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 143 

1914, $536; December, 1916, $746; May, 1917, $814; September, 1917, 
$889; January, 1918, $1,028; April, 1918, $1,088; July, 1918, $1,176; 
October, 1918, $1,300; January, 1919, $1,430. 

The following table, compiled from official statistics, shows the 
cost of some of the principal articles of food in Sweden in 1913 and 
1918: 



Articles. 


1913 


1918 


Articles. 


1913 


1918 


Milk per quart.. 

Butter per pound. . 

Eggs per dozen. . 

Potatoes per bushel. . 

Rye flour per pound.. 


SO. 035 
.29 
.26 
.87 
.026 


$0,096 

.72 

1.17 

4.48 
.051 


Beef per pound. . 

Salt pork do 

Herring do 

Suear do 

Coffee do 


$0.15 
.17 
.041 
.08 

.21 


$0.69 
.49 
.18 
.11 
.38 







Most of these prices represent the maximum prices fixed by the 
Government ; but on account of the scarcity of many articles of food 
there was considerable selling; of food at higher than the Government 



prices. 



WAGES. 



In the sawmills and yards and on the docks aU work is done on 
contract. This system of payment has been universally adopted 
throughout Sweden in all large mills and has generally given satis- 
faction. In the mill the basis of the contract is generally stipulated 
according to the number of logs sawn and in the yards and on the 
docks the basis is the number of pieces handled. The base price is 
usually regulated according to the dimensions of logs and lumber 
taking into consideration the working conditions of the plant, m.a- 
chinery, etc. The chief advantage of this system is the small cost 
of supervision. Furthermore, it accelerates the work, as each man's 
income is dependent upon the work done. If a combination of 
wages and contract could be worked out, however, it would be con- 
sidered more satisfactory, as the contract system has its drawbacks. 

In the miU the head sawyer receives a certain compensation for 
each hundred logs sawn, and the rest of the mill crew are paid in pro- 
portion to the amount received by the head sawyer. 

The mills usually run two shifts, which were about 10 hours each, 
before the war, but which during the war were reduced to 57 hours 
per week. From January 1, 1920, the eight-hour day is compulsory 
by law in the industrial plants in Sweden (including the sawmills), 
but this does not apply to the forest and floating operations. 

Besides the wages earned, most of the employees of the larger plants 
in Sweden have free house room and fuel for themselves and families, 
or at least obtain these commodities at very small charges. Although 
such accommodations may represent a considerable outlay of money 
to the sawmill, it has been necessary in most cases to provide them, 
as the mills often are situated far from the nearest town. The mills 
often cut birch in the forest to provide the workmen with fuel, because 
birch can not be used for pulp. 

No official statistics are available in Sweden concerning the average 
wages for workmen in the lumber industry. The following schedule, 
obtained from private sources, is believed to give a correct idea of 
the average wages paid in 1914 and 1919 by about 75 or 80 per cent 
of the largest mills in Sweden. This schedule was worked out from 



144 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

information obtained from various mills regarding the total amount 
of money earned by the head sawyers, together with the percentages 
of the head sawyers' wages received by the rest of the mill crew. 
These percentages are stated in the schedule. The value of fuel, 
rent, medicine, doctors' attendance, liability insurance, and other 
gratuities is not included in this scale. 



Positions. 



1919 



Head sawyer 

Assistant head sawyer 

Head edgerman 

Assistant liead edgerman 

Stave sawyers 

Assistant stave sawyers 

Stave edgerman 

Assistant stave edgerman 

Stave trimmer 

Assistant stave trimmer 

Slab sawyer 

Assistant slab sawyer 

Slab trimmers 

Assistant slab trimmers 

Boy transporting refuse and edgings... 

Trimmers oflumberinmill 

Assistant trimmers of lumber in mill . . 

Graders 

Assistant graders 

Clean-up men 

Assistant engineer 

Fireman 

Assistant fireman 

Oiler 

Log scaler 

Assistant log scaler 

Boom men 

Men on bull chain 

Common laborers 

Blacksmith 

Assistant blacksmith 

Carpenter 

Watchman 

Filers in yard 

Assistant pilers in yard 

Engineer (locomotive) 

Switchman 

Fach man of crew in trimming shed. . . 

Boys branding lumber 

Old men piling split wood 

Boys piling refuse 

Boys piling staves , etc 

Boys loading and bimdling staves, etc 





CIS. per 




r cent. 


hour. 


Per cent. 


100 


14.7 


100 


83 


12.2 


90 


100 


14.7 


100 


83 


12.2 


90 


100 


14.7 


100 


70 


10.3 


70 


05 


9.6 


65 


50 


7.4 


50 


65 


9.6 


65 


50 


7.4 


50 


100 


14.7 


100 


60 


8.8 


60 


65 


9.6 


65 


50 


7.4 


50 


50 


7.4 


50 


85 


12.5 


85 


65 


9.6 


65 


100 


14.7 


100 


85 


12.5 


85 


80 


11.8 


80 


100 


14.7 


100 


90 


13.3 


90 


85 


12.5 


85 


95 


14.0 


95 


100 


14.7 


100 


85 


12.5 


85 


85 


•12.5 


85 


00 


8.8 


60 


75 


11.0 


75 


100 


14.7 


100 


70 


10.3 


70 


100 


14.7 


100 


75 


11.0 


75 


110 


16.2 


110 


(a) 


(a) 


(a) 


90 


13.3 


90 


95 


14.0 


95 


100 


14.7 


100 


50 


7.4 


50 


80 


11.8 


80 


65 


9.6 


65 


60 


8.8 


60 


90 


13.3 


90 



Cts. per 

hour. 
34.8 
31.3 
34.8 
31.3 
34.8 
24.4 
22.6 
17.4 
22.6 
17.4 
34.8 
20.9 
22.6 
17.4 
17.4 
29.7 
M.6 
34 8 
29.7 
27.8 
34.8 
31.8 
29.7 
33.1 
34.8 
29.7 
29.7 
20.9 
26.1 
34.8 
24.4 
34.8 
26.1 
38.3 



(a) 



31.3 
33.1 
34.8 
17.4 
27.8 
22.6 
20.9 
31.3 



a Not available. 



It is seen from the foregoing table that the basis of wages for 1914 
was 14.7 cents per hour for the head sawyer and that the lowest wage 
paid was 7.4 cents, which was earned by boys 16 to 18 years old. In 
1919 the wages jumped to 34.8 cents for the head sawyers and the 
minimum wage to 17.4 cents. A grader usually receives a bonus at 
the end of the season. 

The wages in the different parts of Sweden vary very little. The 
highest wages in 1914 were generally paid on the west coast of Sweden, 
where the basis was 16.1 cents and the lowest wages were paid on 
the east coast, where the basis was 13.7 cents. 

It is generally estimated that the laborere can make 30 to 40 per 
cent more by working on a contract basis than if they were paid 
straight wages. 

While the laborers in the mills work on a contract basis, the saw- 
mill superintendent, chief engineer, yard and shipping superintend- 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 62.— GANG-FRAME SAW. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 145 



ent, and assistant yard and shipping superintendent receive salaries, 
which were about as follows per year in 1914 and 1919: 



Positions. 




Sawmill superintendent 

Chief engineer 

Yard and shipping superintendent 

Assistant yard and shipping superintendent 



$1,072 

1,072 

1,206 

938 



The following table shows a typical contract of 1916-1918 for the 
head sawyer's compensation for passing logs of different top diam- 
eters once and twice through the gang saw. The head sawyer and 
assistant head sawyer receive a bonus of 8 cents per day in addition 
to the compensation shown in the table. The rest of the mill crew, 
as has been stated, receive their pay on a percentage basis of the 
head sawyer's compensation. 



Top diameters. 


Passing 
log once 

through 
gang. 


Passing 

log twice 

through 

gang. 


Top diameters. 


Passing 

log once 

through 

gang. 


Passing 

log twice 

through 

gang. 


5-6} Inches 


Cents per 
log. 
0.5 
.6 
.6 
.7 
.9 


Cents per 
log. 
0.5 
.5 
.5 
.6 
.7 


11-lli inches . 


Cents per 
log. 


Cents per 
log. 
0.7 


7-7* inches 


12-12i inches . 




g 


8-8i inches 


13-13i inches . 




.9 


9 inches 


14-14 i inches . 




1 1 


9i-10 inches 













The following table shows the compensation per 100 pieces in 
1916-1918 for piling lumber of different dimensions: 



Per 100 



4 by 11 inches 

4 by 9 and 8 inches. . . 

4 by 7 inches 

4 by 6 inches 

4 by 5^ and 5 inches. . 

3 by 11 inches 

3 by 9 inches 

3 by 8 inches 

3 by 7 inches 

3 by 6^ and 6 inches. . 
3 by 5| and 5 inches. . 
3 by 4| and 4 inches. . 
3 by 3| and 3 inches. . 

2^ by 11 inches 

2| by 9 inches 

2| by 8 inches 

2| by 7 inches 

2|by Clinches 

2| by 6 inches 

2i by 5^ and 5 inches. 
2i by 4| and 4 inches. 

2iby 3 inches 

2 by 11 inches 

2 by 8 and 9 inches. . . 
2 by 6 and 7 inches... 
2 by 5^ and 4^ inches. 

2 by 4 inches 

2 by S^and 3 inches.. 
l|by 11 inches 



pieces. 

§1.07 
.96 
.68 
.59 
.54 
.90 
.67 
.58 
.54 
.48 
.44 
.39 
.36 
.68 
.59 
.54 
.47 
.44 
.38 
.36 
.34 
.29 
.56 
.46 
.35 
.31 
.29 
\28 
.44 



Per 100 



IJ by 9 inches 

l| by 8 and 7 inches.. 
1 J by 6 and 5^ inches. 
l| by 5 and 4| inches. 

l| by 4 inches 

l| by 3 inches 

l| by 11 inches , 

l| by 9 and 8 inches. . 

1^ by 7 inches 

1^ by 6 and 5 inches. . 
l| by 4^ and 4 inches. 
I4 by 3| and 3 inches. 

1 by 11 inches 

1 by 9 inches 

1 by 8 and 7 inches. . . 
1 by 6^ and 5 inches. . 
1 by 4^ and 4 inches. . 
1 by 3^ and 3 inches. . 

f by 9 inches 

I by 8 and 7 inches 

I by 6 and 5 inches 

I by 4^ and 4 inches. . 
'I by 3^ and 3 inches. . 

I by 6 and 5 inches 

f by 4^ and 4 inches. . 
f by 3| and 3 inches. . 

I by 6 and 5 inches 

I by 4^ and 4 inches. . 
I by 3| and 3 inches. . 



pieces. 

10.35 
.32 
.28 
.25 
.24 
.20 
.42 
.32 
.31 
.26 
.23 
.20 
.40 
.31 
.27 
.24 
.21 
.19 
.27 
.24 
.19 
.17 
.16 
.16 
.15 
.15 
.16 
.15 
.15 



2092°— 21- 



-10 



146 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

A special contract for sawing small timber is made on the basis of 
$1.14 per 1,000 pieces, representing the compensation of the head 
sawyer. The rest of the mill crew receive the following percentages 
of the head sawyer's compensation: Assistant sawyer, 90; refuse 
man, 60; edgerman, 100; assistant edgerman, 90; loader on cars, 
100; trimmers of slabs, 75; assistant trimmers of slabs, 40; log 
scaler, 100. 

The wages per 100 pieces for piling small timber of different dimen- 
sions were as follows in 1916-1918: 3 by 3 inches, 32 cents; 3 by 4 
inches, 38 cents; 4 by 4 inches, 48 cents; 4 by 5 inches, 54 cents; 
5 by 5 inches, 67 cents; 5 by 6 inches, 80 cents; 6 by 6 inches, 94 
cents. 

The following wages were paid for cutting, grading, and piling 
staves: For cutting staves one-half inch and more in thickness, 25 
cents per 1,000 feet b. m.; for cutting staves thinner than one-half 
inch, 27 cents per 1,000 feet; for grading staves, 9 cents per 1,000 
pieces; for piling staves, 19 cents per 1,000 pieces. 

COST OF PRODUCTION. 

No complete cost-of-production system is used by the mills in 
Sweden. The only efforts to standardize the cost-accounting system 
have been made by the employers' association, but this system 
relates only to the actual cost of labor. Many mills have a defective 
cost-of-production system and do not know what the lumber costs 
to produce, including all charges at the time it is ready for ship- 
ment. In comparing the cost of production in several districts in 
Sweden, a variation of as much as 50 per cent was found, although 
the principal charges for raw material and labor would be about 
equal at least for mills in the same district. 

Some mills contend that the cost of production before the war was 
as low as $14.50 or $15 per 1,000 feet board measure. Upon a close 
examination it was found that most of these mills did not make 
any allowance for depreciation of the plant and similar overhead 
charges, because it was claimed that the plant was amortized years 
ago, while other mills did not set aside a certain percentage of the 
profits for new machinery, etc. 

Stumpage values have nearly always been considered in Sweden 
as a safety valve for the profits, and the mills possessing their own 
forests do not always charge up to stumpage account the actual 
market value, thereby obtaining an erroneous impression of the cost 
of production. That there is room for improvement in this respect 
is evident, as the mills having efficient accounting systems feel that 
it would strengthen the selling policy of all the exporters if the 
actual cost of production were ascertained by all the mills. 

In the following statement an estimate is given of the average 
cost of production for standard Swedish export mills for the years 
1913-14, 1917-18, and 1918-19. Objection may be made to different 
items and the cost of production may seem somewhat high; but it 
is believed that this statement is generally in accordance with the 
actual cost of tlie different operations and stumpage. The calcula- 
tion is not dependent upon special conditions, such as exceptionally 
low stumpage values based on the prices paid years ago when the 
stands were purchased. It is based On an average standard sawmill 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 147 

of an annual capacity of about 16,000,000 feet board measure, 
operating 285 days in a year and requiring 118.7 cubic feet of raw- 
material to produce 1,000 feet of planks, battens, and boards. 

Average Cost of Production of Planks, Battens, and Boards of Swedish 
Pine and Spruce in 1913-14, 1917-18, and 1918-19. 



Items of cost. 



1918-19 



Raw material: Logs in mill pond 

Pond: Storage of logs in pond, piling on land, etc... 

Sawmill: 

Value of refuse used as fuel in power plant 

Wages in mill, including transportation to yard. 

Repairs in mill 

Supplies in mill 

Total, sawmill cost 

Yard: 

Piling in yard, wages 

Supplies. ". 

Repairs 

Total , yard cost 

Shipping: 

Wages 

Repairs and supplies 

Total , shipping cost , 

General expenses: 

Administration, office, etc 

Supervision and foremen, entire plant 

Liability insurance, all departments , 

Taxes 

Fire insurance 

Depreciation of plant 

Depreciation and interest on workmen's houses 

Interest on capital for operation of plant 

Agent's commission, cash discount, etc 

Total, general expenses 

Grand total 



$11. 09-$ 13. 33 
,14- .17 



$21. 24 
.24 



$30.00 
.30 



. 17- . 20 

.95- 1.08 

.14- .20 

.27- .40 



1.36 

1.62 
.28 
1.25 



1.20 

2.40 

.40 

.55 



1.53- 1. 



.51- 

.17- 
.03- 



. 71- . 81 



.68- .74 
.14- .20 



.95- 
.14- 
.06- 
.40- 

.27- 
1.08- 
.47- 
.61- 
1.08- 



.94 



1.02 
.20 
.07 
.47 
.30 

1.22 
.54 
.68 

1.12 



'!19. 35- 22. 75 



4.51 



4.55 



.87 
.51 
.06 



1.27 
.35 
.10 



1.44 



1.72 



1.16 
.30 



1.75 
.40 



2.15 



1.27 
.21 
.24 
.60 
.54 

1.08 
.47 
.91 

2.16 



1.50 
.30 
.24 

1.20 
.81 

1.08 
.47 

1.42 

2.43 



9.45 



36.37 



a Average, $20.30. 

By analyzing the result of sawing a log it is generally found that 
the percentages of the different products are as follows: 70 per cent 
planks, battens, and boards; 8 per cent sawdust; 4 to 5 per cent 
loss in material through shrinkage; 12 per cent refuse and slabs 
(partly raw material for charcoal, pulp, and small-dimension lum- 
ber) ; and 6 per cent mill ends (split wood) . The net value of these 
products at the mill is seen from the following table (basis, 118.7 
cubic feet of raw ir.aterial per 1 ,000 feet board measure) : 



Products. 


Per cent. 


Cubic 
feet. 


Net value at mill. 


1913-14 


1917-18 


1918-19 


Planks, battens, and boards 


70 
8 
4 

12 
6 


83.3 

9.5 

. 4.6 

14.2 

7.1 


$20.30 
.18 


$36.37 
1.79 


$48. 17 


Sawdust 


1.27 


Shrinkage 




Refuse and slabs .. . 


.32 

.75 


.88 
1.13 


.58 


Mill ends 


1 52 






Total 


'00 


lis. 7 


21.55 


40.17 


51.54 







148 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The value of refuse per 1,000 feet board measure was $1.25 in 
1913-14, $3.80 in 1917-18, and $3.37 in 1918-19. These figures are 
based on the current values in centrally located sawmill districts in 
Sweden. In places where there are no markets for waste material 
for pulp making they must be materially reduced. 

Under the section "Logging" a statement has been given with 
regard to the cost of these operations and also an estimate of the cost 
of stumpage. It is believed, however, that in order to arrive at a 
satisfactory result in regard to the total cost of production of the 
lumber, it is advisable to consider the average cost of all logs delivered 
at the mill and not only to take into consideration the value of the 
logs cut in the mill's own forests, because a large percentage of the 
sawlogs is purchased in Sweden. 

The pond charges include expenses for sortmg the logs in the pond 
and storage on land or in water. A fair average for the whole year 
has been given in this estimate. The values of sawdust and refuse 
must be taken into consideration, as these conunodities are of 
commercial value. The figures for sawing represent average figures 
covering many plants and are fairly constant, as wages are regulated 
by the employers' association. Charges for repairs and supplies 
may vary a great deal, but as these items are small, they do not 
influence the total cost of sawing to any great extent. The cost of 
transporting lumber from mill to yard is included with sawmill 
wages, because separate figures for transportation costs were diflacult 
to obtain. The figures for yarding and shipping costs represent 
mainly wages and are fairly constant in the different plants. These 
figures are based on cargo shipments. 

The overhead charges that figure in the books of the majority of 
the sawmill companies in Sweden seem to be too small and possible 
objections to the foregoing statement of the cost of production 
would probably be directed first toward these items. Attempts 
have been made, however, to include all reasonable charges that are 
believed to be consistent with a modern system of accounting in 
connection with sawmill operations. One important item is, for 
instance, the salary of the general manager, which in many cases 
does not figure in the accounts. Some Swedish mill owners contend 
that no salary should be charged, because they own the mills them- 
selves and consequentl}^ have no actual outlay for the management. 
The foregoing calculation, however, has taken these and other similar 
charges into consideration. In an average mill before the war at 
least 30 to 40 cents per 1,000 feet would be required for management 
alone. Adequate charges are also made for office expenses, selling 
cost, etc. 

The charges for supervision and foremen for the whole plant can 
not satisfactorily be distributed among the branches of the sawrmill 
plant. The same applies to liability insurance for workmen. They 
have therefore been considered as OA'"erhead charges. 

Taxes may vary a great deal according to the value of the plant 
and the location. As the system of a progressive scale in taxes is 
used in Sweden, this itein of taxes is dependent largely upon whether 
or not the income of the mill is classified as excess profit. In the 
case of excess profit the taxes may be as high as 40 to 45 per cent as, 
for instance, one sawmiU company in Sweden pays more than 
$2,000,000 in taxes at the present time. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 149 

The fire insurance covers the entire plant, including yard and 
houses. The charges for depreciation are considered adequate, 
based on a recently constructed mill. The depreciation and interest 
on workmen's houses must be considered because these houses, in 
most cases, are regarded as a necessary part of the sa%vmill plant. 

The charges for interest on capital may seem excessive, but the 
same applies to this item as to the item of depreciation. Many mills 
fail to make adequate charges to this account. The interest is 
figured at a normal rate on the capital required to operate a sawmill 
of the mentioned capacity — that is, the capital required for wages, 
logs, raw material, and other expenditures. 

The charges for agents' commissions, cash discount, etc., are 
standard charges amounting to about 5 per cent of the f. o. b. value 
of the lumber exported. 

The total cost of production, averaging $20.30 per 1,000 feet board 
measure, may seem somewhat high for most sawmill operations in 
Sweden, and many mills, no doubt, were able to operate at a smaller 
cost before the war, particularly smaller mills not having excessive 
overhead charges. In regard to the cost of production during and 
after the war, it is difficult to arrive at any correct estimate. The 
variations for the difi^erent plants are too heavy and the values of 
stumpage have fluctuated materially from time to time. 

As before the war, stumpage values play an important part in the 
cost of production. As an example of the high cost of raw material, 
it may be mentioned that in 1919 one mill in southwestern Sweden 
had a cost for raw material alone, delivered at mill, of S45.50 per 
1,000 feet board measure. The wages increased materially as the 
cost of living went up. Lubricants, oelts, and similar supplies were 
difficult to obtain and these commodities were often handled by per- 
sons who demanded exorbitant prices. The price of lubricants alone 
was a hundred times higher in 1918 than in 1913. 

During the war the working hours also were decreased and this 
had an important bearing on the high cost of production. The 
increase in wages did not reach its cfimax at the time of the armistice, 
but has been climbing ever since. The institution of the eight-hour 
day in 1920 will materially increase the cost of production. 

Stumpage values, however, seem to be on the decline; during 1919 
the prices were not so hig:h as in 1918. 

The rate of interest paid on borrowed capital is higher at present 
than before the war. It was generally estimated that 5 to 5^ per cent 
was paid on borrowed capital by most of the mOls before the war, 
whereas at present 7 to 8 per cent would probably be considered the 
average rate of interest. 

If one considers the operation of a mill based on the production 
of planks, battens, and ooards alone, and on purchased logs, it is 
easily seen that the sawmill business itself was not very profitable 
before the war nor even during the war, in many cases. A satis- 
factory profit can be made only if the waste material is carefully 
utilized through the combination with other industries, such as pulp 
miUs, charcoal plants, planing mills, and box factories. 

It is safe to assume that even under the most advantageous cir- 
cumstances few miUs in Sweden can produce lumber at present for 
less than $40 to $45 per 1,000 feet board measure. Immediately 
before the war the cost of production would run not less than 



150 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

If lower costs of production are given, it is believed that charges for 
stumpage and overhead expenses may not have been accurately 
calculated. 

To persons not familiar with the present problems of the Swedish 
lumber industry it may seem that the sawmills make' an unreason- 
ably large profit on the sale of their lumber, as the prices of lumber jn 
some cases have almost trebled, compared with the pre-war level. 
It appears, however, upon a close investigation of Swedish con- 
ditions that the cost of production has advanced almost in the same 
proportion, and were it not for the fact that the Swedish sawmills can 
utilize their waste material profitably many of them probably would 
not be in operation at present. 

There is always a heavy risk in connection with the Swedish saw- 
mill business, because the miUs contracting for saw logs one year may 
not be able to have the lumber that is cut from these logs ready for 
shipment until two or even three years after the logging contracts 
have been made. In the meantime the prices of lumber may fluc- 
tuate a great deal and the miUs may lose heavily. For instance, 
logs purchased at top prices during the summer of 1918 will not be 
ready for shipment before the summer or autumn of 1920, and as 
the stumpage value at that time will probably be lower than in 1918 
the profits will be small. 

It is believed that the majority of the Swedish mills did not make 
a larger profit before the war on the sale of their lumber than 6 to 8 
per cent. 

PLANING-MILL INDUSTRY. 

The development of the lumber industry in Sweden has followed 
lines similar to its development in Norway. At the start, centuries 
ago, round logs and square timber almost exclusively were produced 
for export, but later this industry gradually developed into the 
manufacturing of sawn lumber. A further development along the 
lines of exporting manufactured and semimanufactured wood pro- 
ducts, in preference to unmanufactured material, has taken place 
during the last quarter century, and a considerable percentage of the 
rough lumber is now turned into planing-mill products, box shooks, 
sashes, doors, etc. The relative importance of the planing-mill 
industry, however, is not so great in wSweden as in Norway, where 
most of the lumber exported consists of planing-mill products. 

The most important district in Sweden manufacturing planed 
lumber, doors, sashes, etc., is the west-coast district, where the city 
of Goteborg takes the lead. The satisfactory shipping facilities for 
exporting, in parcel lots, to the principal European markets have 
developed the planing-miU industry in this part of Sweden. The 
box-manufacturing industry is one of the chief activities in the west- 
coast district. In this report sashes, doors, moldings, etc., will 
not be treated, as these products are in a class by themselves. 

The only semimanufactured lumber products closely allied to the 
sawmill industry are planing-miU products and box shooks. From 
the statistics in a following section it will be seen that the exports of 
planing-miU products have increased materially in Sweden during 
recent years and in 1913 constituted about 15 per cent of the total 
quantity for export of planks, battens, and boards. During the 
war the manufacturing of box shooks has greatly developed. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 151 

Swedish pine and spruce are easily worked, and when planed pro- 
duce a smooth and even surface in spite of the numerous knots. 
The small percentage of the upper grades, however, is a serious draw- 
back. Planed Swedish pine and spruce as export articles probably 
would not have been known in the world's markets were it not for 
their excellent manufacture. 

The planing mills are usually operated in connection with box 
factories. In southern Sweden the mills often buy rough lumber, 
split wood, etc., resawing this wood in the planing mills into boards; 
but many planing mills also operate small sawmill plants, cutting 
their own stock for planing purposes from logs. Part of the output 
of these small sawmills may be sold as rough lumber, especially the 
wider dimensions (9 inches and wider), because it sometimes pays 
better to dispose of this stock in this way than to turn it into planing- 
mill products. Only the better grades of boxes are manufactured 
from such stock. 

The plan of a modern Swedish sawmill, box factory, and dry kiln 
is seen from figure 45. This plant is based on rail shipment, but is 
located close to a shipping port. The lumber cut in the sawmill is 
dried in a kihi, and there is a sorting table outside the mill for grading 
the lumber. The transportation of the lumber from the sawmill to 
the kiln and from the kiln to the planing mill and box factory is 
effected by a transfer system similar to that used in the United 
States. 

In figure 64 is seen an efficient arrangement of the different machines 
in a combined planing mill and box factory. These machines are 
aU of Swedish make. 

CREW OF PLANING MILL. 

The crew of a planing mill of an annual capacity of 10,000,000 
feet board measure, operating two planers and two resaws, would be 
28 men, as follows: One superintendent, 2 planer operators, 2 men 
feeding planers, 2 men at rear end of planers, 2 resawyers, 2 feedere 
of resaws, 2 men at rear of resaws, 2 trimmers, 2 graders, 1 filer, 
3 car pushers to planing mill from yard, 2 car pushers from planing 
mill to shed, 3 pilers in shed, and 2 boys handling refuse. 

EQUIPMENT OF PLANING MILL.^ 

The planing mills are equipped with resaws, which are circular 
saws of a conical shape and somewhat similar to the shingle saws in 
the United States; but they seldom have a larger diameter than 24 
inches. The kerf is small, generally 1.5 millimeters (0.059 inch), 
and seldom more than -^ inch. The feed is effected at a maximum 
speed of 140 to 148 lineal feet per minute. There are many types of 
resaws. in the larger plants double resaws are in general use. The 
following description outlines some of the principal features of 
these resaws. : 

DOUBLE RESAW. 

The double resaw has been designed especially for resawing planks 
and boards and is used by the larger planing mills and box factories. 

» The data in regard to the machinery used in the Swedish planing mills and box factories have been 
furnished to a large extent by the principal manufactiu-er in Sweden of planing-mill machinerv. J. & C. G. 
Bolmders Mek. Verkstad A/B., Stockholm. f ^ j, 



152 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 




Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 65.— AUTOMATIC APPARATUS FOR TRANSPORTI NG 
LOGS FROM POND TO MILL. 




FIG. 66.— SYSTEM OF CONVEYORS TRANSPORTING LUMBER FROM MILL 
TO SORTING PLANT OUTSIDE OF MILL. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 153 

Thiri conical saw blades are used, by which lumber up to 9 inches 
wide can be split with a saw kerf of less than one-sixteenth inch, 
depending upon the condition of the wood and the dimensions. 
When cutting lumber of wider dimensions the saw kerf will nat- 
urally be somewhat greater. 

The machine has one right-hand and one left-hand saw working 
together in the same frame, but each saw has its own feed mechanism 
and countershaft, so that they work independently of each other. 
Between the saws is a table with rollers both on its surface and at 
its edges, so that the lumber can easily be passed back over the table 
for resawing. The frame is cast in one piece. 

Immediately in front and on both sides of the saw blades there 
are pressure roUers, which hold the boards steady even if the feed- 
roller pressure is thrown off, permitting the sawing of lumber of 
short lengths. 

Both the feed roller and the pressure roller, independently of each 
other, can be set at an angle for sawing out boards that are thinner 
at one edge than at the other, or so-called weatherboards. 

Following are the specifications for one of these machines: 

Maximum depth of cut, 11| inches. 

Maximum diameter of saw blades, 31^ inches. 

Maximum distance between feed roller and fence, 7| inches. 

Maximmn distance between saw blades and feed roller or fence, 4 inches. 

Average rate of feed, 90, 110, and 132 lineal feet per minute. 

Countershaft's pulley: 

Diameter, 15f inches. 

Face, 8^ inches. 

Revolutions per minute, 630. 

BAND SAWS AND TRIMMERS. 

Band saws are used for resawing stock 9 inches and wider, because 
circular saws can not be used profitably for such purposes. The 
band saws are used principally in the planing mills and box factories. 
One of the largest types used in the Swedish mills is of the following 
description: The frame is heavy and is cast in a single piece. The 
feed mechanism consists of four (2 pairs) power-driven feed rollers 
6 inches in diameter, journaled in heavy frames, which are movable 
on long shdes. Following are the specifications: 

Maximum depth of cut, 28 inches. 
Maximum distance between feed rollers, 14 inches. 
Rate of feed, 115 lineal feet per minute. 
Dimensions of saw wheels : 

Diameter, 56 inches. 

Face, 5 1 inches. 
Driving pulleys: 

Diameter, 19J inches. 

Face, 8^ inches. 
Revolutions per minute, 600. 
Maximum length of saw blade (without allowance for brazing), 28 inches. 

The trimmers used in the planing mills are of about the same con- 
struction as those used in the sawmills, but the saw blade has more 
teeth. 

HEAVY FAST-FEED PLANER. 

Of planers there are many types. Most of them are operated on 
the system of rotary cutters and fixed knives combined. The follow- 



154 SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

ing description gives the principal features of the largest type of 
Swedish planer. 

The feed mechanism is double and consists of four paits of feed 
rollers 16 inches in diameter, of which two pairs are placed in the 
front of the machine and the remaining ones immediately following 
the bottom fixed knives, which arrangement allows an effective and 
powerful feed without exercising unnecessary pressure on the lumber. 
The upper rollers are conveniently raised or lowered by means of a 
crank from the front side, and an easily accessible and adjustable 
screw prevents them from falling too low should a board pass through 
without being followed up by another. The lower feed-roller spindles 
have their bearings in square blocks and are easily adjustable for 
woods of different hardness, etc. The gear wheels subject to the most 
wear are made of steel and all high-speed gears have machine-cut 
teeth. All gear wheels are we.ll guarded by cast-iron hoods. 

The cutter spindles are made of Swedish steel and revolve in ball 
bearings. 

The front under cutter is journaled in a light but strong frame, 
which can be drawn out even while the machine is running. If a 
reserve cutter with sharp knives is alwaj^s kept in readiness, the 
change can be made in an instant without interfering with the work 
of the machine. The cutter head has chip breakers on all four sides. 
The thickness of the chip can be regulated from the front side of the 
machine while it is working. 

The side cutters are adjustable while running both horizontally 
and vertically and are furnished with cutter blocks for taking ordi- 
nary planing knives, also bushings for patent cutters, the latter 
being necessary if the maximum rate of feed for which this machine is 
designed is to be attained. Adjustable chip breakers are also fitted. 

The top cutter is journaled in a very heavy frame, which is con- 
veniently adjustable by a hand wheel from the front side of the 
machine. The cutter block has chip breakers on all four sides. 

The last under cutter (beading cutter) is adjustable both horizon- 
tally and vertically. The bearing at one end is easily removed, 
whereby cutter blocks with ordinary planing knives or patent cutters 
can Be used. By using the latter the maximum rate of feed can be 
maintained even when beading. The rear table can be removed, 
leaving the cutter free. Both the front and rear table can be moved 
to or from the cutter spindle, so that when adjusted correctly in 
position no vibration need be feared. 

The bottom fixed-knife drawers are in duplicate; that is to say, 
they are placed side by side. Each drawer is fitted with three fixed 
knives placed at the most advantageous cutting an^le. The drawers 
can be withdrawn and replaced independently of each other and 
without disturbing the working of the machine. A drawer with sharp 
knives can always be held in reserve to rejDlace the one working in the 
machine when it becomes dull. There is a considerable saving of 
time by this arrangement, as the feed never stops wliile the drawers 
are being changed ; and as the sharp knives are put in and set to work 
exactly before the dull ones are released, every board that passes is 
perfectly finished. The pressure above the drawer is regulated by 
means of a handle in the front side of the machine, which is connected 
to the drawer in such a way that when the pressure is applied the 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 155 

drawer is raised and vice versa. There is a hand wheel for fixing 
the pressure arrangement to the size of work to be planed. 

The side fixed-knife drawers are fitted on heavy slides and are 
adjustable while the machine is running, both horizontally for different 
widths of lumber and vertically, so that the planing Imives can be 
used throughout their entire length. 

The top fixed-knife drawer, which is placed inunediately following 
the top revolving cutter, is pressed against the work by a simple de- 
vice and is at the same time easy to remove. 

The pressm-e devices are easily adjustable for diiierent thicknesses 
of wood and different pressures. Over the bottom cutter and fixed 
knives, as also against the side cutters, the work is held in position 
by rollers working independently of each other, by which means 
uneven lumber receives an even pressure over its entire width. In 
front and behind the top cutter there are pressure rollers. Over the 
beading cutter the work is held in position by sliding pressure. The 
pressure rollers are furnished with closed grease cups, by which means 
lubrication is very effective and the lubricating material is protected 
from shavings, dust, etc. 

The coimtershaf ts are fitted with ball bearings. The main counter- 
shaft of the planer is located behind the machine. The intermediate 
countershaft, with fast and loose pulley (the loose pulley running in 
ball bearings), as also the feed countershaft, are located under the 
floor; but they can also be located overhead, if necessary. 

Following are the specifications for the heavy, fast-feed planer: 

Maximum dimensions planed : 

Thickness, 6 inches. 

Width, 12 inches. 
Rate of feed, 60,72, 85, 98, 113, 126, 154, 181, 208, and 236 feet per minute. 
Maximum capacity, 120,000 linear feet per 10 hours. 
Countershaft pulley: 

Diameter, i7| inches. 

Face, 8 J inches. 

Revolutions per minute, 750. 

PATENT CUTTERS. 

In many planing mills there is great difficulty in obtaining liigh- 
class work from knotty and cross-grained or brittle wood at a high 
rate of feed when using ordinary sectional cutters, as the grinding 
and inserting of these cutters require the greatest accuracy to insure 
a perfect balance, and this work consumes considerable time. This 
disadvantage is entirely obviated by using patent cutters. 

The patent cutters are manufactured from Swedish tool steel by 
machines specially designed for this purpose. They are equilateral, 
so that every tooth cuts exactly the same amount of material. The 
patent cutters have six or more teeth and are circular in shape, thus 
insuring a perfect balance, which enables the machine to be run at 
a greater speed, giving a larger output. The profile remains the same 
until the cutter is worn out; the thickness and height of tongue can 
not fail to be correct. The changing of these cutters can be done in 
two or three minutes. 

These cutters can be used on any spindle, such as four-cutter 
planers or spindle molders. 



156 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



SHAVING CUTTERS. 



The machines for chipping shavings from the planer are intended 
for cutting up the long shavings cut on a planing machine by the 
fixed knives. The machine cuts up shavings into very small pieces 
suitable to be carried, together with the cutter chips, in ordinary 
shavings spouts or in pipes, to the boilers or any other desirable place. 

The machine consists of two rotary cutters, each furnished with 
two knives and so constructed that the knives always meet at the 
same place. The cutters are journaled in a common frame, which 
can be withdrawn for inserting, sharpening, or exchanging knives; 
this is done once every week. No special feed mechanism is neces- 
sary. The machine is run by a single belt. 

The machine is located under the fixed-knife drawers of the planer 
and at a convenient distance from them. It is furnished with a fast 
and loose pulley and is started and stopped from the front side of the 
planer. 

RESAWING AND PLANING METHODS. 

The successful operation of a planing mill is based on a skillful 
utilization of raw material, as the charges for planing alone would 
barely cover the cost of labor. The profit derived, therefore, must be 
dependent upon the individual operator's success in effecting the 
highest possible saving in raw material. Through agreements estab- 
lished years ago between the exporters and consumers abroad, the 
price basis of planed lumber is made the rough sizes, allowing one- 
eighth inch on the thickness and one-fourth inch on the width of 
each piece for planing; for instance, 1 by 44- inches nominal (rough) 
measure is required to be | by 4| inches actual measure (planed), and 
the prices based on 1 by 4^ inches. Tliis allowance was considered 
necessary many years ago when the technique of the planing-miU 
industry was less developed than it is now. Since that time, how- 
ever, the design of planing-miU machiner}^ has made important prog- 
ress, especially in the saving of material. The waste in chips when 
planing now amounts to only a fraction of the allowance mentioned. 

Each planing mill has its own method of resawing raw material 
in the most profitable way, and this is usually done by resawing 
planks and battens into boards on special circular resaws, because 
the circular resaws have a smaller kerf than the gang saws. Boards 
are the only dimension lumber for export that is planed in Sweden. 

The rough stock for planing purposes must be dried at least six 
months before it is planed. Tlie moisture contents of such stock 
does not generally exceed 25 per cent. Many mills have found 
it profitable to install kilns for this purpose. 

In cutting logs to produce lumber for planing purposes, special 
sawing schedules are in effect, which differ consideralbly from the 
sawing schedules used in cutting rough stock for export. Rough 
stock for planing purposes is generally cut with considerable wane. 
If such stock were edged in the ordinary way in the sawmill, a large 
percentage of raw material would be wasted in edgings; therefore, 
the waney stock is resawn in the planing mill and not edged before 
it is run through the planer, because the waney portion of the lumber 
is removed by the siae cutters and the only consideration that must 
be given such rough stock is that sufficient material must be left to 
provide for the tongue and the groove. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 157 

The following schedule shows the system of resawing rough stock 
of planks and battens in many planing mills in Sweden: 4-inch stock 
is resawn into 3 pieces of a nominal thickness of five-eighths inch 
and 3 pieces of a nominal thickness of three-quarter inch; 3-inch 
stock, into 4 pieces five-eighths inch thick and 1 piece three-qunrter 
inch thick ; 2^-inch stock, into 3 pieces five-eighths inch thick and 1 
piece three-quarter inch thick, or 3 pieces seven-eighths inch thick, 
or 2 pieces 1 inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick; 2-inch 
stock, into 3 pieces one-half inch thick and 1 piece three-quarter 
inch thick, or 3 pieces three-quarter inch thick, or 3 pieces one-half 
inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick, or 2 pieces three- 
quarter inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch thick; and 1-inch 
stock, into 1 piece one-halt inch thick and 1 piece five-eighths inch 
thick. Four pieces of weatherboard are resawn from 2^ by 7-inch 
stock, which are three-quarter inch at one end and one-quarter inch 
at the other end. By nominal thickness is meant the thickness on 
which the boards are sold ; the actual thickness would be less, as was 
previously explained. 

The foregoing figures represent the resawing of regular stock sizes 
from the sawmill yard. Many mills, however, cut special stock for 
the planing mills and the following schedule gives some of the princi- 
pal dimensions of this nature cut in Sweden from rough stock of 
planks and battens : 2 j-f-inch stock is resawn into 2 pieces of a nomi- 
nal thickness of 1^ inches; 2|-inch stock, into 5 pieces five-eighths 
inch thick or 2 pieces 1^ inches thick; 23j^-incli stock, into 2 pieces 
li inches thick or 4 pieces five-eighths inch thick; 2|-inch stock, 
into 2 pieces 1^ inches thick; 2|-inch stock, into 3 pieces three-quarter 
inch thick; Iji-inch stock, into 4 pieces one-half inch thick or 2 
pieces 1 inch thick; If-inch stock, into 2 pieces 1 inch thick, or 1 
piece li inches thick and 1 piece three-quarter inch thick, or 4 pieces 
one-half inch thick; l|-inch stock, into 3 pieces five-eighth inch 
thick or 2 pieces 1 inch thick. 

The first condition for employing such exceedingly fine resawing 
methods is that the raw material must have the required dimensions 
and must be accurately cut. Lumber from circular mills can not 
usually be resawn in the manner mentioned. Consequently the 
planing mills operating with stock from circular mills have greater 
difficulty in saving raw material unless the lumber is either cut to 
exact sizes or somewhat in excess of the required dimensions. Before 
purchasing such circular-sawn lumber, the inspector for the purchaser 
exercises the utmost care and takes every fraction of an inch into 
consideration. 

Considering the fact that a large percentage of Swedish rough lum- 
ber for export is imported for planing purposes and that the importing 
countries frequently employ the same methods of resawing as are used 
in Sweden, it is readily seen to be of the greatest importance to these 
importers to receive Swedish rough lumber well-manufactured, 
especially when one takes into consideration that heavy charges 
for freight, custom duties, etc., are added to the cost of the raw 
material. 

The resawing schedule given may seem unsatisfactory to many 
mills, because m some cases the planed lumber produced may be 
somewhat scant. These schedules therefore, can not be said to be 
in use in all mills. It depends upon the markets and the customers 



158 SWEDISH LUMBER IISTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EJ^ORT TRADE. 

of each mill to what extent they can employ such schedules. For in- 
stance, to cut 3 thicknesses of three-quarter inch each from one batten 
2 inches thick, would generally be considered inadvisable. The 
same applies to cutting two pieces 1 inch thick from If -inch stock. 
It is claimed that planed lumber resawn from such stock has fre- 
quently been sent to the London market on consignment. In this 
market the lumber is sold at auction sales and as the purchasers have 
an opportunity of inspecting the lumber before the purchase is made, 
no claims are afterwards considered, but the prices are usually 
correspondingly low for such scant stock. Tiiese consignment 
practices, however, are discouraged in Sweden. 

It is generally required that the upper cutters touch the back of 
each board. Otherwise, the planed lumber is considered scant. If 
the lumber, through some faulty resawing, turns out scant, it is 
dressed down to the next size, in preference to having it shipped 
along with other stock having the required sizes. There is no pro- 
vision in the Swedish grading rules to the effect that the lower grades 
may be shipped scant. Cull stock, as well as first grade, must always 
have the measurements required by the grading rules. As a rule, 
it may be said that the saving in raw material by resawing is larger 
in case of narrow ^vidths than in wide stock. 

The following example shows the resawing of a waney batten 2^ 
by 7 inches: 1 piece | by 7 inches; 1 piece | by 6 J or 6 inches; and 
1 piece I by 5 mches. If the batten were square-edged, the width 
of all tliree pieces would have been 5 inches. In this case it is seen 
that considerable material has been saved by resawmg the waney 
stock. 

Besides this saving in raw material, it has also been found that the 
grade of discolored rough lumber, after being planed, may be raised 
considerably because the discoloration is often present only at the 
surface. This is a very important pomt to consider, because by 
planing rough discolored stock the sawmills may sell at full price a 
large percentage of the blue lumber, which would otherwise have to 
be sold at a reduction. Not only discolored lumber but also lumber 
contaming other defects that would classify it as better class cull 
stock may be materially improved in grade by planmg. 

It has usually been found that rough lumber of other than cull and 
discolored stock may be raised in grade by being run through the 
planing mill. For mstance, second-grade battens, rough stock, 
may yield 25 per cent of first-grade planed stock, 74 per cent of 
second-grade planed stock, and 1 per cent of third-grade planed stock. 
Third-grade rough boards may yield 100 per cent of second-grade 
planed stock and fourth-grade rough stock may yield 25 per cent of 
second-grade and 75 per cent of third-grade planed lumber. Un- 
sorted scantlings, rough stock, may give 10 per cent of fu'st grade, 76 
per cent of second-grade, and 14 per cent of third-grade planed lumber. 

The average length of the lumber also is generally increased by 
planing because the wane can be utilized profitably. 

After resawing, the lumber is trimmed, giving the stock a small excess, 
usually about one half inch. From the trimmer the lumber is passed 
through the planer. The surface of the planed products is perfectly 
smooth on account of the fixed Imives, which shave off thin ribbons 
of the same length and width as the piece. The thickness of these 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 159 

shavings may be regulated; they are often thm enough to be trans- 
parent. 

The planers are operated m such a way that the surface cut by the 
gang saw is dressed by the upper rotary cutters, while the face of the 
board that is bemg cut by the chcular saw is surfaced by using the 
fixed knives only. This is possible because the surface cut by the 
circular saw is very smooth. In case of rough surface on both sides 
of the board, both the upper and the under cutters must be used 
and the fixed knives also are employed on face side, but the waste is 
somewhat larger by this procedure. Even the knottiest piece of 
lumber may be surfaced without chipping and tearmg the grain, 
provided the stock is dry and the planing is done efficiently. 

The shavings are passed through a cutter installed immediatel)" 
under the planer on the ground floor of the mill. In this cutter the 
shavings are cut into chips for pulp material or the shavings may 
also be manuf actm^ed mto excelsior on special machinery with revolv- 
mg disks. Through blow pipes the shavings from the upper, mider, 
and side cutters are removed. 

In most cases the total waste in material through resawing and 
planing combined would hardly exceed five sixty-fourths inch in thick- 
ness. Thus the gam m material is made on the thickness of the 
board; en the width the mills do not figure on any gam. 

DIMENSIONS OF PLANED LUMBER. 

The usual dimensions of planed lumber are as follows: Thickness — 
h, h f > h Hj H? and 1^ mches, many other dimensions, such as If 
inches, may be termed odd sizes); width — 4, 4^, 5, 5^, 6, 6^, 7, 8, 
9, and 11 inches; average length— 15 to 16 feet for stock 6 J inches 
and less in width and 14 to 14 J feet for stock 7 inches and up. 

Weatherboards and rustic also are manufactured by some concerns. 
Sometimes the mills may plane lumber to conform with the metric 
measurements, as this can very easily be effected. In trimming 
the lumber the same system is followed as with rough lumber. The 
Swedish exporters have seriously considered trying to enforce the 
metric system m the dimensions produced in the planmg mills be- 
cause a great savmg in raw material could be effected through the fact 
that the standard of measurement m the metric system is smaller than 
that of the system now used. The same dimensions for planing-mill 
products are used in Sweden and Norway. 

In some comitries the importers specify that the planed boards 
must be of a certain specified size expressed in millimeters. In such 
cases the manufacturers can not make any considerable gam in raw 
material, but the prices are correspondingly higher. As this stock 
is often sold with a written guaranty in regard to measurement, 
some importers are very exacting in their inspection, and if a varia- 
tion from the specified sizes can not be ascertamed m the case of one 
piece of lumber, five or more pieces are piled one on top of the other 
and the total thickness of all five pieces measured and divided by 
five. If any discrepancy is found by this method a complaint is 
sure to follow. Some importers are provided with almost scientific 
mstruments called micrometers, enabling them to measure dimen- 
sions of planed boards to a fraction of 1 millimeter. 



160 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Some limited quantities of moldings are produced in Sweden, but 
it is claimed that producing moldings for export is not profitable on 
accomit of the variety of patterns and the extra trouble in filling 
small orders. Therefore the mills generally do not care to cater to 
this trade. 

GRADING AND LOADING. 

The grading of planed lumber in Sweden is dependent upon so 
many circumstances that no one has attempted to give any definite 
written grading rules. The quality of the lumber itself is inferior to 
the usual planing mill products of soft woods in the United States, 
mainly because there is practically no clear lumber to be obtained 
from Sweden. On the other hand, the manufacturing of planed stock 
in Sweden is better and it is not necessary to run the planed lumber 
through Sanders before it is used. Therefore it is possible to sell 
Swedish planed lumber in so distant a market as Australia, which 
is nearly 13,000 miles away from Sweden, but only about 7,000 miles 
distant from the Pacific coast of the United States. 

On account of the presence of knots Swedish planed lumber is used 
only where it can be painted. Otherwise, the appearance is very 
poor. 

The planed pine lumber is graded into first, second, and third 
grades or sometimes into four. Absolutely clear stock may be sep- 
arated from the remainder of the first quality but the quantity of 
this grade is very small, often less than one-half of 1 per cent. The 
lumber may also be shipped unsorted (that is, containing first, second, 
and third grades in the proportion in which they come from the planer, 
but eliminating fourth grade and cull). Usually lumber 5 inches 
wide and less is sold unsorted. 

Spruce lumber is usually graded into mixed grade, which consists 
of first and second grades, and third grade or is also sold unsorted. 
For the British colonies, pine and spruce are sold in two grades: 
Colonial first, which consists of first and second grades, and colonial 
third. Weatherboards are sold unsorted. 

The lumber is branded according to the same system used for 
rough stock but it is often customary to indicate, either by a special 
brand or by a special color, that the stock is dressed lumber. The 
result of the grading of the better stocks may be given roughly as 
1 J per cent of first grade, 80 per cent of second grade, 10^ per cent of 
third grade, and 8 per cent of discolored and cull. If graded for 
British colonial markets the result is usually 80 to 85 per cent of 
colonial first and 15 to 20 per cent of colonial third, besides cull, 
which varies a great deal. Cull stock may find a market in the 
United Kingdom and a few other countries but is usually disposed 
of locally. 

Like sawn lumber, planed lumber is always shipped with the pine 
and spruce distinctly separated. 

From the mill, the lumber is taken to sheds, where it is piled solidly 
according to dimension and grades. Thence it is transferred to 
barges when shipment is made. The barges are always covered on 
all four sides with walls and must be protected by roofs. In regard 
to the bundling of planed lumber, there are different regulations in 
almost every country. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of Uddeholm A/B. 

FIG. 68.— A WORKMAN'S HOUSE. 



^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^U 




1 


^^^^.^^f ' ,,. .■^^•"Ig 




IHHk i 


■■ 


m 



FIG. 69.— IGGESUND PULP MILL. 



Special Agents Series No. 195, 




From Special Aconts Scries No. 11:'. 

FIG. 70.— ACCURATE LENGTH MEASUREMENTS OF SWEDISH 
PINE. THE PLANK ALONG WHICH THE TAPELINE IS 
STRETCHED IS THE CORRECT MEASUREMENT. 




FIG. 71.— SAWDUST PILE WORTH 5.10,000. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 161 

The following schedule gives an idea of tne rules with regard to 
bundling planed lumber for shipment to some of the principal markets : 
London market — ^ by 4-11 inches, f by 4-11 inches, and f by 4-7 
inches must be bundled; | by 8-11 inches need not be bundled; | by 
4-5 inches must be bundled; I by 5^-11 inches need not be bundled; 
I by 4-11 inches and 1 by 4-5 inches must be bundled; 1 by 5^-11 
inches and IJ and IJ by 5| inches need not be bundled. West coast 
of England — f by 7 inches need not be bundled and | by 6| inches 
and down must be bundled. Australia and South Africa — | inch 
and thicker need not be bundled and | inch and less must be bundled. 
Netherlands — | inch and up need not be bundled and f inch and 
less must be bundled. Denmark — The bundhng is dependent upon 
the buyers' orders in each case. 

The bundles are usually made up in the following way: |-inch 
boards, 6 to 8 boards to the bundle; f-inch boards, 5 to 6 boards to 
the bundle; |-inch boards, 4 to 6 boards to the bundle; |-inch boards, 
5 boards to the bundle; and 1-inch boards, 5 boards to the bundle; 
weatherboards, 4 boards to the bundle. 

A crew of four men can load about 50,000 feet board measure of 
planed boards per day. If the boards are bundled, this crew can 
load only 30,000 feet per day. 

LABOR AND WAGES. 

Work in the planing mills and box factories is made on a contract 
basis in the same way as in the sawmills. The operators of the planer 
obtain a certain compensation per 1,000 linear feet of lumber turned 
out and the remainder of the crew receive payment in proportion to 
this compensation. 

In 1914 the planing-mill foreman was receiving a salary of about 
S536 per year and in the winter and spring of 1919, $884 per year. 
The following percentages and wages apply to the workmen in the ma- 
jority of the Swedish mills during 1914 and winter and spring of 1919: 



Positions. 



Operator of planer 

Resawyer 

Assistant operators of 

planer 

Assistant resawyer 

Trimmer .' 

Grader 



Per- 
cent- 
ages. 



100 
100 

70 
70 
80 





1919. 


1914. 


Cents 


Cents 


per 


per 


Tiour. 


hour. 


14.7 


34.8 


14.7 


34.8 


10.3 


24.4 


10.3 


24.4 


11.8 


27.8 


14.0 


33.1 



Positions. 



Filer 

Car pushers to planing 
mill from yard 

Car pushers from planing 
mill to shed 

Pliers in shed 

Boys handling refuse 



Per- 
cent- 
ages. 



100 
100 
50 



1914. 



Cents 
per 

hour. 
13.3 

15.4 

14.7 
14.7 
7.4 



1919. 



Cents 
per 
hour. 
31.3 

38.5 

34.8 
34.8 
17.4 



The following schedule for 1916 to 1918 is representative for 
contracts covermg planing-mill labor in Norrland, on the basis of 
2^ cents per 1,000 linear feet, with 15 per cent additional for boards 
8 inches and more in width: Operator of planer, 100 per cent; 
resawyer, 100 per cent; assistant resawyer, 90 per cent; grader, 100 
per cent; trimmer of planed lumber; 70 per cent; feeder for resaw, 
65 per cent; man at rear of resaw, 60 per cent; feeder of planer, 55 
per cent; trimmer (rough stock) 80 per cent. For resawing weather 

2092°— 21 11 



162 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

boards, the wages were 5.4 cents per 1,000 linear feet; for bundling 
boards, 0.4 cent per bundle; for trucking boards from mill to shed^ 
34 cents per 1,000 feet board measure; and for trucking raw material 
to the planing mill, 20 cents per 1,000 feet board measure; for lumber 
ll inches and thicker, 27 cents; for lumber If to 1 inch thick; and 34 
cents for lumber three-fourths inch and less in thickness. 

COST OF PRODUCTION. 



Usually many mills in southern and southwestern Sweden acquired 
a large percentage of their raw material by purchases of planks and 
battens from smaller interior mills. The following may be con- 
sidered as average prices per 1,000 feet board measure f.o.b. interior 
sawmill, immediately before the war, for lumber of different widths: 
9 inches, $19; 8 inches, $17.65; 7 inches, $17.65; 6-6| inches, $16.85; 
5-5i inches, $15.80; 4-4^ inches, $14.75. Freight charges to the 
planing mill were $1.50 to $2.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. 

In 1918 the corresponding prices were as follows: 9 inches, $44.75; 
8 inches, $43.65; 7 inches, $42.35; 6^-6 inches, $41.30; 5*-5 inches, 
$40.20; 4^4 inches, $39.10. Freight charges to the planing mill 
were $8. 50 to $10.15 per 1,000 feet board measure. 

The following statement is an estimate of the cost of planing in 
an average sized plant, and refers to the years 1913-14 and 1918. 
The present cost would probably be somewhat higher, as the wages 
have incerased since this estimate was made: 



Items of cost. 



Wages 

Supplies 

Repairs 

Accident insurance and 

hospital 

Fire insurance 



1913-14 


1918 


80.95 


$1.49 


.41 


1.22 


.07 


.14 


.05 


( 
.14 


.05 


.10 



Items of cost. 



Depreciation on plant 
Interest on capital. . . 
Taxes 

Total 



1913-14 



SO. 43 
.08 
.14 



2.18 



1918 



80.95 
.17 
1.08 



5.29 



BOX FACTORIES. 

The essential feature in manufacturing box shooks is to effect a 
close utilization of raw material, and in the box factories this close 
utilization is accomplished to the highest possible degree. Many 
mills that had not previously specialized in this industry, but began 
mantLTacturing box shooks during the war on account of the large 
profits made during the abnormal times, now find themselves in a 
difficult position, because during normal times it requires more than 
ordinary experience in mill operation to run a box factory satis- 
factorily. Many people seem to think that any kind of raw material 
is suitable for box shooks, but this is a great mistake, and concerns 
operating exclusively on waste as raw material for boxes are not 
likely to make a success of the undertaking. 

Considerable complaint is heard in Sweden of many incompetent 
box-factory operators failing to calculate correctly the cost of pro- 
duction, thereby often underselling their competitors at a great loss 
to all concerned. 

The larger box factories use as raw material logs, planks, battens, 
split wood, and sawmili waste. The equipment of the mill largely 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 163 

determines what raw material is used. The most profitable operation 
seems to be a combination of the raw materials mentioned. Even 
top logs down to 3^ inches are used in cutting stocks for box shooks. 
Of planks and battens, exceptionally waney stock not suitable for 
ordinary shipping stock is preferred because waney lumber can be 
utilized effectively, even more than in the ordinary planing mills. 

Each mill has its own method of resawing the raw material. Both 
pine and spruce, and to some extent hardwoods, are used for this 
stock. Spruce is always preferred for food containers on account 
of the absence of smell and taste in this wood. Swedish pine and 
spruce are generally excellent box material and will hold nails well. 
The knots are firmly incased and do not come loose, and the wood 
does not split or check. 

EQUIPMENT. 

A number of small machines of various types are found in the 
Swedish box factories. Of resaws there are several types in use. 
The following description is given of a double resaw used by the 
larger box factories, where the splitting of short pieces of lumber 
into thin box boards is carried on on a large scale and where accurate 
dimensions and the least possible loss are necessary conditions of the 
manufacture. The machine is constructed with two saw blades on 
separate spindles, the idea being that the board sawn by the first saw 
is split in two by the second saw. The feed is accomplished by 
means of an endless chain fitted with projections, which carry the 
work continuously to the saw blades. The saw blades, which should 
be conical and have a thickness corresponding to No. 19 to 20 Bir- 
mingham wire gau^e, depending upon the depth of the cut, are 
steadied while running by leather-covered set screws, both in front 
and behind the center of the blades. 

Following are the specifications for this machine : 

Maximum diameter of saw blades, 24J inches. 

Maximum length that can be cut with two blades, 23^ inches. 

Maximum length that can be cut with two blades and special pressure device, 

27| inches. 
Maximum length that can be cut with one blade, 71 inches. 
Minimum length that can be cut of narrow lumber, 6 inches. 
Minimum length that can be cut of wider lumber, 8-10 inches. 
Maximum distance from first saw blade to fence, 2 inches. 
Maximum distance from second saw blade to fence, 1 inch. 
Minimum thickness that can be split, five thirty-seconds of an inch. 
Maximum depth of cut, 8 inches. 
Rate of feed, 39, 66, and 100 linear feet per minute. 
Countershaft pulley: 

Diameter, 15| inches. 

Face, 8^ inches. 
Revolutions per minute, 710. 

Besides a variety of planers of different sizes, built on more or less 
the same principle as was described in a previous section, a few types 
of automatic box machines are in use. 

There is only one automatic shook machine of Swedish make, of 
which the following description is given: 

This machine is intended to take material roughly trimmed and 
edged, and to plane, tongue, groove, glue, joint, and make up finished 
box sides and ends, etc., to the exact dimensions required. The 
operation is performed automatically from the time the boards are 



164 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

feci into the machine until the finished box sides or ends, etc.. are 
delivered by the machine. 

The boards are fed into the machine as in an ordinary planer on 
one or both sides and are tongued and grooved. The edge is then 
glued if desu-ed and the boards are jointed together, trimmied to the 
desired length, and cut up into widths corresponding to the dimen- 
sions of the box sides or ends, etc. 

For the operation of the machine two men are required, one man 
for feeding the boards into the machine and one for operating the 
machine and looking after its planing steel, cutters, and saws. 

The maximum rate of feed is 90 linear feet per minute, which for a 
10-hour working day, with 6 by § inch by 24^ foot lumber, makes 
about 9,000 feet board measure, or about 7,000 pieces of 24 by 18 inch 
finished box shocks. If three cross-cut saws are used, double the 
number of finished shocks wiU be obtained. 

The machine consists of the following principal parts: Planing 
machine, glueing device, jointing device, side-shifting device, length- 
adjusting apparatus, cutting-up apparatus, and delivering apparatus. 

The plamng machine has, as usual, a feed mechanism navmg four 
driven rolls, following which come the under cutter for planing the 
bottom side, the top cutter for planing the top side, and the side- 
cutters for planing the edges of the boards and at the same time 
cutting the tongue and groove, which are of the dovetail type. 
There are four side cutters arranged, two on each side. They are 
all set to an an^le for making dovetail joints. 

The glueing device is placed immediately behind the side cutters. 

The jointing device consists of a feed mechanism, which takes 
hold of the board as soon as it has passed the planing machine and 
glueing device, and by a quick motion drives it into joint with the 
preceding board, after which the jointed material is moved auto- 
matically sidewise by a sliding apparatus called the side-shifting 
device. This device moves the jointed material automatically to 
one side a distance equal to the width of one board, so that as each 
board comes from the planer, planed, tongued and grooved, and 
glued, it meets the preceding board in correct position for forming a 
joint with it. 

As the jointed material is moved sidewise to leave room for each 
board coming through the machine, two or three crosscut saws adjust 
the length to an exact dimension. 

By means of a resaw the jointed material is cut into box ends or 
sides of the exact width required. 

The last device in the machine is the delivering apparatus, wliich 
delivers the finished jointed material. 

The box shocks may be turned out with single or with double dove- 
tails. In the latter case seven-eights inch stock is resawn on a band 
saw into two pieces three-eights inch thick, which materially increases 
the output. 

Following are the specifications for this machine: 

Maximum dimeneions of finished material, 37 by 32 inches. 
Minimum dimensions of finished material, 10 by 10 inches. 
Maximum thickness of finished material, seven-eighths inch. 
Minimum thickness of finished material, five-sixteenths inch. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 165 

Length of raw material: ^ 

Maximum, 38 indies. 

Minimum, 18 inches. 
Width of raw material: 

Maximum. 7 inches. 

Minimum, 3 inches. 
Rate of feed, 54, 60, 67, 73, 80, and 90 linear feet per minute. 
Dri^'ing pulley: 

Diameter, llf inches. 

Face, 7^ inches. 
Revolutions per minute, 1,300. 

This machine is said to work satisfactorily, but it is claimed that it 
has the disadvantage of requiring considerable time in changing the 
steel to plane shooks of different dimensions. The machine should 
be driven by its own electric motor of 40 effective horsepower. 

SAWING OF RAW MATERIAL. 

Mills sawing their shooks from logs often use the following sawing 
schedule, according to Forester M. Nordquist: 



Top diameters of logs. 



4-5 inches . 
5J-6 inches 

6i-7 inch&s 
7}-8 inches 



Number 
ofshooks, 



Thickness 
ofshooks. 



Inches. 

H 
H 
u 

a 
1 

2. 



Top diameters of logs. 



Number 
ofshooks. 



8J-9 inches.. 
9i-10 inches. 



Thickness 
ofshooks. 



Inches. 



lA 



The lumber is not edged but is dried, either in kilns or in the open 
air. After drying the lumber is resawn on circular saws to smaller 
dimensions and cut to suitable lengths, whereupon each piece is edged. 
In this way considerable material that would otherwise be wasted in 
the form of edgings is saved because individual attention can be given 
each small piece in edging, thereby effecting the largest possible saving 
in raw material. If the shooks are to be dressed they are run through 
a planer. 

One system of sawing material for box shooks has been found very 
satisfactory. The logs are first halved and then taken out to the yard 
to be dried. After drying the two half logs are cut to the required 
dimensions on gangsaws, with blades of 19 to 20 Birmingham wire 
gauge. It is claimed that lumber cut from these logs is especially 
firm in texture and that the knots are firmly pressed into the wood 
during the process of drying, so that stock cut from these logs is espe- 
cially suitable for planing purposes. It is claimed that the waste of 
each log that can not be turned into box shooks represents only 17 
to 18 per cent of the cubical contents of the logs. 

Another system of manufacturing box shooks is used by the Safveans 
A/B. of Goteborg, which has improved upon a machine that is manu- 
factured and commonly used in the United States. This miU cuts the 
lumber from logs with a large percentage of wane. The wanes are 



* The raw material should be at least J to § of an Inch longer than the finished material. 



166 SWEDISH LUMBER IISTDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

then edged at an angle of 20, 30, or 40 degrees, according to their form, 
whereby only a slight portion of each plank or batten is edged. By 
sorting the various categories of raw materials representing 20, 30, 
or 40 degree wanes and running this Imnber through the American 
box machine, the pieces are glued together in the way shown in figure 
95. Furthermore, the mill also takes advantage of the taper of the 
log by joining the butt and the top end together as seen on the same 
figure. This represents the closest utilization of raw material found 
in any factory in Sweden. The glued and joined pieces are there- 
upon resawn on band saws into suitable thicknesses. 

Besides the considerable saving in raw material this system has 
another advantage of having a larger gluing surface at the joints, 
which materially strengthens the shooks. 

DIMENSIONS OF SHOOKS. 

There are very few standard dimensions of box shooks. Even some 
of the largest importers abroad do not seem to understand the ad- 
vantage of standardizing their shook specifications. The mills in 
Sweden are therefore generally unable to keep shooks in stock but 
make them on special orders. 

The prices vary materially in each case, depending upon specifica- 
tions. It is always a matter of bargaining whether the boxes shall be 
made up of one, two, three, or more pieces, and this materially in- 
fluences the price, as the supply of wide stock in Sweden is limited and 
its prices are high. 

The following are a few standard box specifications turned out by 
the Swedish factories : 

Pyramid butter box for Ireland: ^ Dimensions. 

2 ends 12 inches base, 11 inches top, 13 inches high, 

^-g inch thick. 

2 sides 13| inches base, 12 J inches top, 13 inches high, 

-f*^ inch thick. 
1 top 12| bv 12i by ^ inch. 

1 bottom 13| by 13| by ^''^ inch. 

Soap boxes for United Kingdom: 

(2 ends 13| by 8f by f inch. 

J J2 sides 18f by 8f by | inch. 

] 1 top ISt by 13| bv t'^ inch. 

U bottom 18f by 13f by y% inch. 

12 ends 15J by 6| by f inch (planed on one side). 
2 sides 20| by 6|.by y^^inch (planed on one side). 
1 top 20 by" 15i by 3^ inch (rough). 
1 bottom 20 by 15| by y^^ inch (rough). 

Salt boxes for United Kingdom: 

2 sides 14|- by 13^ by y% inch (made up from 3 and 

4 inch shooks.) 
2 ends 13^ by 1 ^ by y'^ inch (made up from 3 and 4 

inch shooks). 
1 top and 1 bottom , 13| by 13f by y*^ inch (made from up 3 and 

4 inch shooks). 
4 l)races 13| by 2 by f inch. 

One factory in Sweden has standardized the manufactui^ of 
boxes called "Torroba, " which are sold mainly in the United King- 
dom. The box shooks are made on the American box machine 
previously referred to, and it is claimed that these boxes require 
20 per cent less wood than boxes of the same capacity turned out 

* Shooks to be planed on both sides and edges; measurements refer to planed stock. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 167 

by other factories. This is due to the special features of tne manu- 
facture that have already been explained. 

A strength test made by the Chalmerska Institute in Goteborg 
shows the amount of pressure possible on Torroba boxes and boxes 
of ordinary construction. Ordinary nailed box of usual type, con- 




Top View 




End V/ew 



ToQQOBA System of Snook M/jnufacture 



Fig. 72. 



sisting of several shooks (three-fourths-inch ends, five-eighths-inch 
sides, Dottom and top), 909 pounds; nailed Torroba box (five-eighths- 
inch ends, one-half-inch sides, top and bottom), 1,320 pounds; lock- 
cornered Torroba (five-eighths-inch ends, one-half-inch sides, top and 
bottom), 1,833 pounds. 



168 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



SHIPMENTS. 



Box shocks are shipped mainl}^ on regular liners in parcel lots. 
The box shooks are tied with wire or other oinding material and often 
stamped with the importer's brand. The branding machines are 
nearly all of American make. 



COST OF PRODUCTION AND LABOR. 



It is impossible to give any general statement in regard to the cost 
of production of box shoofo, as many special features enter into 
consideration in each case. The following schedule may serve as a 
guidance in regard to the cost of labor covering a district in Norrland 
during 1916 to 1918: 



Cents per 1,000 
Sawyer: linear feet. 

3^ inches and less in width 7 

3^ to 5J inches 9 

5^ to 6^ inches 10 

6;;. to 7i inches 12 

7| to 8i inches 15 

8^ to 9 inches 16 



Cents per 1,000 
Edgemian: linear feet. 

1% inch and less in width 2 

I to f inch 4 

Thicker stock 5 

Trimmer: 

j^g inch and less in width 3 

f to f inch 4 

Thicker stock 5 



READY-CUT HOUSES— SASH AND DOOR FACTORIES. 

A few attempts have been made to start manufacturing ready- 
cut houses for export. For various reasons these undertakings 
have not been successful, and factories specializing in this product 
on a large scale are not found in Sweden. It is probable, however, 
that such an industry will be started in the future if a demand should 
be created abroad for these houses, but high prices for raw material 
and labor in Sweden prevented the starting of this industry during 
the war. 

The sash and door industry is entirely separated from the sawmill 
business and is located chiefly in the Goteborg district on the west 
coast of Sweden. Important factories are found, but they are not 
operated on so large a scale as similar factories in the United States. 
The machinery in many cases is imported chiefly from the United 
States. Tlie industrial statistics of Sweden give the total value of 
the product of the sash and door factories combined as about 
S2, 200,000 in 1915. Sash and door factories are sometimes operated 
in connection with planing mills, but as a rule they form a separate 
industry and will not be considered in this report. A normal year's 
exports of sash and doors from Sweden are about S900,000. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 1(59 



SWEDEN 

(SVERIGE 

PRODUCtlON OF 

SAW MILLS AND PLANING MILLS 

BY PROVINCES 

(PtHE AND SPRUCE LUMBER) 

1915 

lOjOOO ^>2^ ROUGH. PUNKS, 
tt.f£n^2£23 BATTENS AND BOtPDS 

1 PLANED 
' BOARDS 
10.000 ^mmSPUTWOOD. BOXSHOOKS 
M-rserVi" LATHS STAVES, ETC 




C'Tt OF STOCKHOLM 
RURAL OiSTRiCr OF STOCKI 

SOoeRMANLAND 

OSIEHCOa 

jOnkOping 

HRONOBCf^b 

KALMAR 

GOniANO 



GOTEBORG » 
AlVSBORC 
SKARABORG 
VARMLANO 



19 VASTMANIANO 

20 KOP^aRBLRC 
?l GiVLESOftG 

22 VASIERNORRUWO 

23 JAmTLAND 

24 VASTERSOnEN 
2i HORHBOTTEM 






Fig. 73. 



PART III.— THE LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE EXPORT TRADE. 

Timber and lumber liave been exported from Sweden for centuries. 
At the start this trade was to a large extent in the hands of the Han- 
seatic League but it passed later to the Dutch merchants. The 
Netherlands was the largest market for Swedish wood in the seven- 
teenth century and imported large quantities of timber for ship- 
building and other construction purposes. Lumber was not ex- 
ported in large quantities because Swedish logs were manufactured 
into Imnber in the importing countries. 

In the eighteenth century, the LTnited Kmgdom became the prin- 
cipal market but at the beginning of the nhieteenth century several 
difficulties were placed in the way of imports of lumber into this mar- 
ket, with the exception of lumber from the North American Conti- 
nent. Heavy duties amounting to even $26 per 1,000 feet were 
imposed on lumber at one time. Restrictions in Sweden also limited 
the exports of wood products, such as export duties and shipping 
restrictions, etc., many of which were in force even up to the middle of 
the last century. 

The duties on lumber imported into England were abolished in 
1866, and from this time the Swedish lumber export trade grew ver}^ 
rapidly. Prior to the middle of the century trade had been carried 
on mainly by the west coast and the east coast of Sweden as far 
north as Gevle. With the creation of the important sawmill indus- 
tries in Norrland about 60 years ago, the export trade gradually 
changed over to this part of the country, and the Norrland shipping 
districts have now been exporting the bulk of the lumber from Swe- 
den for decades. The total value of the lumber and timber ex- 
ported from Sweden during the last 50 years prior to the war, from 
1864 to 1913, was $1,456,738,000, of which $1,122,383,000 repre- 
sented the values of the shipments from the Norrland districts. 
The value of the lumber shipped from the whole of Sweden during 
this period represented about 34 per cent of the value of all com- 
modities exported. 

The last 50 years represents a steady increase in the lumber ex- 
ports up to 1897. From this time on the quantities exported 
varied to some extent and reached their lowest ebb in 1909. After 
this time the export trade increased up to 1913, when it reached the 
1897 level. The war naturally caused much change in the export 
business and in 1914 the quantities declmed to some extent, but the 
following two years, 1*915 and 1916, represent very good shippmg 
seasons, 1916 being a record year in the history of the Swedish lumber 
trade. In 1917 and 1918, difficulties were experienced and the quan- 
tities exported were very small, but the profits realized on these 
small quantities were greater than were generally obtained ])efore the 
war. 

170 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 171 

111 considering the Swedish export statistics, it must be kept in 
mind that the success of the export trade should not be judged ex- 
clusively by the quantities shipped. The Swedish lumber exporters 
do not flood foreign markets with theu- lumber during dull times. 

EXPO/^T OF kVOOD OF ALL K/NDS 
FROM SWEDEN 

L9^3 — 



POUGH LuAlB£f^ 

64.1 Vo 



Planed Lumber 
/0:9 7o 



Pound T/mber 
n.2 7o 



Hewn 7.9 % 



Firewood 5.9 % 



"^ 



)> Pine and Sprace 
39.3 7o 



Fig. 74. 



J 

Orher species than 
P/ne and Spruce 
O.77o 



When prices are unsatisfactory, the exporters prefer to curtail their 
output for export and favor the policy of exporting smaller quan- 
tities of lumber at fairly satisfactory prices, rather than trying to 
impose upon the markets large quantities of lumber in excess of the 
demand. Since the crisis after the Franco-Prussian War, when the 
prices of lumber dropped in a short time more than 50 per cent, 
thereby eliminatmg a large number of mills from the exporting busi- 
ness, there has been no serious crisis which the Swedish lumber ex- 
porters have not been able to overcome. 



172 SWEDISH LITMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The mill owners frequently contend to the foreign importers that 
it pays them better to leave their trees standing than to cut them 
dm-ing dull times and realize only small profits or none at all. The 
growing trees always yield a profit in the form of annual increment, 
and although this annual increment represents a smaller percentage 
on the investment than would be derived from the sale of lumber 



Thousand Fe^fB.M. 



Thousand teef B.M. 

\ 
■Z.IOO 



I 

2.1 00 - 












































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700 - 




































































































































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■2 000 

■ I. 900 

■ I aoa 

- / 700 

■ i 600 

■ / 500 

■ I 400 
. I 300 
-I 200 
-/ 100 

- /. ODD 

-goa 
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^SChO,«j:. .,.,., 

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Fig. 75.— Exports from Sweden of rough and planed lumber of pine and spruce, from lS8(i to 1918. 

during ordinary times, it is considered better to take this smaller 
profit than to endanger the prices of the total output \)j dumping 
excess quantities on the market. 

SAWN AND PLANED LUMBER. 



Although Swedish exports of timber and lumber have not grown 
in proportion to those of Finland, it must be noticed that the quan- 
tities of sawn and planed lumber are larger than the corresponding 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 76.— HORSE EATING CELLULOSE FOOD. 




FIG. 77.— BRIQUET OF COMPRESSED SAWDUST. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 78.— BROOM HANDLES. 




FIG. 79.— PILES OF LUMBER COVERED WITH TARPAULINS. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 173 

figures in Finland. The exports of round logs, small timber, etc., 
represent important items in the Finnish wood-export trade. Swe- 
den does not compare so favorably in this respect with Norway, 
where the percentage of planed-lumber products is especially high. 
In fact, the tendency to increase the proportion of manufactured 
lumber exported started in Norway and gradually moved eastward. 
The following table gives the percentages of pine and spruce lum- 
ber of different widths and thicknesses exported from Sweden from 
1913 to 1918: 



Kinds of lumber. 



Rough stock: 

Planks and boards 8h inches 

and up 

2 inches thick and up — 

Pine 

Spruce 

Less than 2 inches 
thick — 

Pine 

Spruce 

Battens and boards, 6 to 8^ 

inches wide 

2 inches tliick and up — 

Pine 

Spruce 

Less than 2 inches 
thick — 

Pine 

Spruce 

Scantlings and narrow 
boards, less than 6 inches 

wide 

2 inches thick and up— 

Pine 

Spruce 

Less than 2 inches 
thick- 
Pine 

Spruce 

Planed boards: 

84 inches and up 

Pine 

Spruce 

6 to 8| inches 

Pine 

Spruce 

Less than 6 inches 

Pine 

Spruce 

Total, rough and planed— 

SJ inches and up 

Pme 

Spruce 

6 toSiinches 

Pine 

Spruce 

Less than 6 inches 

Pine 

Spruce 



Per cent. 
20.23 



12. 58 
4.34 



2.49 
.82 



32.87 



12.11 
9.20 



8.03 
3.53 



5.38 
4.63 



12.36 
9.72 

1.10 
.47 
.63 
8.31 
4.24 
4.07 
5.40 
2.99 
2.41 

21.33 
15.54 
5.79 
41.18 
24.38 
16.80 
37.49 
20.73 
16.76 



1914 



Per cent. 
17.28 



10.76 
3.92 



2.05 
.55 



34.91 



12.65 
9.75 



3.92 



31.00 



6.92 
4.91 



11.65 
8.07 

1.22 
.48 
.74 
8.94 
4.92 
4.02 
6.10 
3.47 
2.63 

18.50 
13.29 
5.21 
43.85 
26.16 
17.69 
37.65 
22.04 
15.61 



Per cent. 
19.88 



12.62 
4.86 



1.78 
.62 



36.01 



14.06 
10.64 



7.75 
3.56 



32.77 



8.25 
5.69 



10.66 

8.17 



.36 
.62 
5.27 
2.71 
2.56 
5.09 
2.71 
2.38 

20.86 
14.76 
6.10 
41.28 
24.52 
16.76 
37.86 
21.62 
16.24 



Per cent. 
21.01 



13.33 
5.09 



1.87 
.72 



37.39 



14.88 
11.04 



7.99 
3.48 



32.02 



7.58 
6.22 



11.08 
7.14 

.60 
.32 
.28 
4.32 
2.13 
2.19 
4.66 
2.40 
2.26 

21.61 
15.52 
6.09 
41.71 
25.00 
16.71 
36.68 
21.06 
15.62 



1917 



Per cent. 
17.60 



9.79 
5.01 



1.86 
.94 



39.06 



13.21 
12.24 



S.91 
4.70 



7.71 
7.05 



.37 
.22 
.15 
2.98 
1.75 
1.23 
4.78 
2.88 
1.90 

17.97 
11.87 
6.10 
42.04 
23.87 
18.17 
39.99 
21.35 
18.64 



1918 



Per cent. 
17.30 



9.51 
1.30 



2.60 



39.06 



12.62 
11.87 



10.07 
4.50 



34.89 



7.19 
6.43 



12.04 
9.23 

.28 
.19 
.09 
3.19 
2.02 
1.17 
5.28 
3.44 
1.84 

17.58 
12.30 
5.28 
42.25 
24.71 
17.54 
40.17 
22.67 
17.50 



Average, 
1913-1918. 



Per cent. 
18.89 



11.43 
4.59 



36. 55 



13.25 
10.79 



8.56 
3.95 



33.08 



7.17 

5.82 



n.42 

8.67 

.76 
.34 
.42 
5.50 
2.96 
2.54 
5.22 
2.98 
2.24 

19.65 
13.88 
5.77 
42.05 
24.77 
17.28 
38.30 
21.57 
16.73 



The figm-es for war years are of little interest because conditions 
were abnormal and it was extremely difficult to effect any shipments 
to far-away comitries on account of the scarcity of tonnage and the 
high freight rates. 

Exports of timber props and similar stock have been fairly con- 
stant durmg the last 50 years, showing a small increase up to 1904, 
but the exportation of unmanufactured stock decreased from that 
time until the end of the war. During the war the exports of pit 
props and timber, and also railroad ties, increased materially, but 
this increase was due only to war conditions. The tendency in 



174 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

■H g HW 899' 9/ '93/iJJ.NnOD iJ3HMO lit/. h3 

W.^'yCyA' £'5'^'9£ 'tf/ltfUlS'nff >S 

■/V '9 ^--=11^ O £r'^;5' 'biDliJJb/ Nt S3iyj.NnOD ii3HJ.D IW >^ 



■iA/g -fj^ i^ei 's-9 ' i/j/yj(j HJ.nos'f^s-/ifi/3 



;y/y -fJM/ 099 '^(? ' 3dodn3 Ni S3/yiNnoD ii3HJLo ne 

U/ g 4- J W 99 O 69 - /< b/MHON 

H 9 '^3^ Sti.6 'OL - NitfdS 

A/ 9 id a tP^'^9- Hnj9 739 

M 9 43 H 669 'M/ - ONt/ 7 70// 



'iiii 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 175 



Sweden was shown clearly in the exports during the years preceding 
the wax, namely, to manufacture the raw material mto sawn or 
planed lumber products, pulp, etc. Kecently the imposition of an 



Thousand FeefB.M. 



TfiousandFeefBM. 





















' fl 
























A 
























/\ 






















/ 




\ 




















/ 




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o- 








































































































































































1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 



1 



/90 

/60 
/70 
/60 
/50 

/30 
/20 

//a 
/oo 

90 
■60 

70 

60 
SO 

40 
30 
20 

to 



Fig. 81.— Exports from Sweden of rough and planed box shocks, of pine and spruce. 

export duty on unmanufactured wood has been considered. During 
the last 15 years before the war the exports of planed lumber were 
constant in proportion to the exports of rough lumber, but the 
former decreased somewhat during the war. The normal proper- 



176 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



tion of planed lumber to the total exports of rough and planed stock 
was approximately 15 per cent before the war. 

The exports of box shooks m Sweden developed very rapidly 
during the last 10 years before the war; the quantity of planed and 
sawn box shooks exported in 1916 was about three times as large as 
in 1908. The latter increase, however, must be attributed to the 
war demand for box shooks. The exportation of split wood and 
mill ends decreased in the same proportion ; the quantities exported 
of this stock in 1916 were less than one-third of the quantities 
exported in 1908. This clearly shows that the Swedish box fac- 
tories now are utilizing most of the split wood as raw material for 
manufacturing shooks m Sweden, while formerly they exported this 
raw material to other countries, where it was manufactured into 
such stock. 

The exportation of pulp wood showed a similar tendency before 
the war, and it is believed that pulp wood will not be exported in 
large quantities, because the Swedish pulp mills themselves need 
this raw material. 

While there has always been and always will be a market for 
Swedish rough lumber, both in Europe and in countries outside of 
Europe, the future of the export trade in planed lumber is rather 
uncertain. One country after the other has practically barred 
Swedish planed lumber from its markets by imposing on such stock 
import duties so heavy as to be practically prohibitive. The estab- 
lishing of direct steamship lines from Sweden to over-sea countries 
has materially assisted the exporters of planed lumber, as Swedish 
planed lumber is frequently shipped in small parcel lots. 

Immediately before the war such planed stock, shooks, floormg, 
etc., was shipped m considerable quantities to far-away new markets 
(India, Persia, Dutch East Indies, South America, etc.). If these 
markets should be exploited more extensively, the Swedish lumber 
exporters will doubtless be able to dispose of a large part of their 
output of planed lumber. 

In considering the economic aspect of the Swedish lumber business 
one must bear m mind that the profits of the Swedish lumbermen are 
not entirely dependent on sales of sawn and planed lumber. This 
fact may explam their unwillingness to sell lumber when prices are 
low, because they are in a position to continue their operations along 
other lines, such as pulp factories, and, if necessary, to curtail the 
production of their sawmills in order to stimulate the market. 

The remarkable growth in the Swedish export trade m mechanical 
and chemical pulp from 1892 to 1917 is shown in the following table: 



Vears. 



1892.. 
1893.. 
1894.. 
1895.. 
1896.. 
1897... 
1898.. 
1899. . 
1900.. 
1901.. 
1902... 
1903.. 
1904.. 



Mechanical pulp. 



Wet. 



Tons. 
27,803 
27,869 
32,410 
33, 249 
35, 975 
39,791 
47,099 
52, 303 
48,403 
42,058 
3(),348 
4S, 734 
58,442 



Dry. 



Tons. 

20,654 

20,782 

22,718 

49,680 

65,642 

54,716 

48,841 

41,996 

3(), 834 

35,636 

61,586 

07,111 

81,392 



Chemical pulp. 



Wet. 



Tom. 
29,116 
36,869 
35,038 
59, 748 
76,934 
80, 062 
77,603 
110,763 
132, 881 
143, 426 
178,333 
224,811 
232,275 



Dry. 



Tons. 

12,580 

13,590 

13,204 

9,120 

7,791 

8,350 

7,930 

4,558 

10,426 

10,320 

10,541 

18,017 

20, 415 



Mechanical pulp. 



Years. 



Wet. 



1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 
1914 
1915 
lOlti 
1917 



Ton^. 

48,735 

63,950 

59,366 

54,414 

45,995 

51,198 

61,203 

57, 458 

59, 198 

37,806 

57, 191 

65, 792 

64,175 



Dry. 



Tons. 
72,507 
83,396 
114,246 
109,322 
114,495 
180,517 
178, 121 
217, 746 
264,049 
202,063 
185, 825 
223,010 
111,436 



Chemical pulp. 



Wet. 



Tons. 
239,614 
253,787 
321,470 
362,677 
371,832 
489, 004 
562, 814 

618. 258 
625,716 
630,062 

695. 259 
664,112 
478,468 



Dry. 



Tons. 
22,980 
23,678 
3.5,763 
37,333 
31,252 
42,608 
45,390 
55,069 
00,394 
61,080 
53,055 
55,064 
35,103 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 177 




SWEDEN 

(sverige; 



EXPORT OF 

ROUGH AND PLANED LUMBER 

(PINE AND SPRUCS) 

BY SHIPPING DISTRICT6 

1913 



2092°— 21- 



Flg. 82, 



178 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



The following table shows the exports of planks, battens, and 
boards, planed and rough, from Sweden to the principal countries of 
destination, during the first 8 months of 1913, 1918, and 1919, accord- 
ing to Swedish official statistics (the latest figures available at the 
time this report was written) : 



Countries of destination. 



England 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Denmark 

Bel^um 

Spam 

Other European countries.. . 
Countries outside of Europe: 

Total 



January- 
August, 
1913. 



Mfeet. 

423,463 

205, 720 

162, 588 

69, 575 

146,045 

50,009 

41,511 

55,163 

137,456 



1,291,530 



January- 
August, 
1918. 



Mfeet. 

357,899 
12,642 
89,272 
90,389 

190,983 

671 

1,327 

117,073 
12, 264 



872,520 



January- 
August, 
1919. 



Mfeet. 
630,176 

95, 864 
7,148 

48, 128 
135,511 

10,203 

32,504 
118, 709 

25,417 



1,103,660 



ROUND, HEWN, AND SAWN TIMBER. 

During the early part of the lumber export trade round timber 
and logs represented a large percentage of Sweden's exports of wood. 
The quantities exported at present are mainly the saw logs shipped 
to Norway, particularly from regions connected with Norway by 
floating rivers. The exports of saw logs and round timber to other 
countries are very small. 

MAST TIMBERS. 

Sweden was once an important source of supply for mast timber, but 
now it is difficult to obtain mast timber because most of the virgin 
forest in Sweden has been cut. It is also very difficult to transport 
mast timber because logs longer than 30 feet can not be floated in 
Sweden, as a rule, even in the best-regulated rivers, because the 
timber is liable to break. Mast timber, therefore, is ta^cen by rail- 
road to the coast. It is usually produced in central and southern 
Norrland, where the growth of the trees is suitable for stock of this 
kind. 

The specifications for mast timbers sometimes call for timber 50 
to 60 feet long and 10 inches in top diameter, but it is very difficult 
to furnish such dimensions. The use of wooden masts has greatly 
decreased during recent years on account of use of steel masts in 
their place. The spar and mast timber supplied at present is of 
comparatively small dimensions, and is shipped mamly to the United 
Kingdom, where it is used for masts for small boats, ship riggmg, etc. 
Spruce is principally shipped for this purpose because it is lighter 
than pine. Scotland takes considerable quantities of masts for 
fishing vessels. The spars and masts must be perfectly straight 
and must have no serious defects, such as large knots, which would 
materially weaken the piece. Stock of this kind must be shipped 
the year it is cut. 

The prices before the war for small masts for fishing vessels were 
generally 15 to 25 cents per cubic foot, depending upon the dimen- 
sions. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 179 



POLES. 



Small poles called 'dickers/' mostly of spruce, are shipped in 
lengths of 16 to 50 feet, havmg a top diameter of 1^ to 3 inches 
and a diameter at the middle of 3^ to 6 J mches. This stock is ship- 
ped mostly to the United Kingdom. The poles must be straight 
and hare no serious defects. They are shipped with the bark on. 
This stock is used mostly for scaffoldmg in various mdus trial plants. 
The foUowmg table shows dimensions and prices for such small 
poles m 1913: 





Top 

diameters. 


Price f . 0. b. 


I-eugths. 


west coast 
port (1913). 






Cents per 
cubic feet. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


16-22 


n 


10.7 


22 


2 


20.1 


23-30 


2 


25.5 


22 


2.\ 


24.1 


24 


2?, 


29.4 


25-29 


2.1- 


40.2 


30-35 


■71 


58.9 


36-40 


'ly 


67.0 


42-48 


■>i 


93.8 



The United Kmgdom and Denmark are the prmcipal markets for 
telegraph and telephone poles. This stock is not shipped in any 
great quantities from Sweden because the specifications in the 
United Kingdom are very strict and frequently result in claims, 
which make the exportation of this stock unprofitable. The poles 
must be felled between November 15 and March 15, according to the 
British specifications. The taper of the Swedish pine is generally 
not suitable for telegraph and telephone poles of the required dimen- 
sions. For instance, when the specifications stipulate an 8 inch 
inch diameter at the butt and a 6 mch diameter at the top, the 
Swedish poles would be 7^ inches at the butt and 6 inches at the top. 
The growth of the Norwegian pme is more suitable for telephone 
poles and this trade, therefore, is handled largely by Norway. It is 
difficult m Sweden to obtain telegraph and telephone poles more 
than 50 feet long if they must comply otherwise with the British 
specifications. 

The followmg are typical specifications for telegraph and tele- 
phone jDoles from southern Norrland to the east coast of the United 
Kingdom in 1913: 







Minimum 


Prices c. i. f. 


T^engths. 


Top 


diameters, 


east coast, 


diameters. 


5 feet from 


United 






butt end. 


Kingdom. 


Fed. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


Per phcr. 


IS 


51-6.', 


7\ 


$0,973 


20 


W-6i 


'•2 


1.095 


22 


5.'.-6J 


7-J 


1.277 


24 


5|-6J 


8 


1.642 


26 


5?-7 


H 


1.947 


28 


52-7 


8i 


2.190 


30 


6 -7] 


SJ 


2.433 


34 


fi;-7j 


9J 


3.042 


30 


6'-7-i 


10 


3.407 


3S 


K-7i 


m 


4.380 


40 


0'-?.', 


03 


5.110 


15 


0.V8" 


103 


6.083 


.-lO 


ol-si 


Uf. 


S. 030 


55 


7 "-8 5 


m 


10. 9.J0 


00 


7 -SiJ 


131 


14.840 


65 


7 -9 


14 


17.760 



180 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



MINING TIMBER. 



The United Kingdom is the principal market for romid mming 
timber. This stock is of rather poor quality, admittmg discolora- 
tion, a certain amomit of rot, large knots, etc. — in other words, stock 
that is not suitable for the sawmills. Tlie mining timber is usually 
barked and shipped in lengths of 10 feet and up, generally 17 to 18 
feet. The top diameter varies from 4 to 7 inches. This stock was 
sold before the war at about 7 to 8 cents per cubic foot. The exports 
are unimportant. 

Pit props are used m the mmes for various purposes, supports, 
etc., and are shipped mamly to the United Kingdom. 

The shipment of props from Sweden is effected either direct or by 
way of Norwegian ports. During the last 10 years before the war the 
exports of props declined about 50 per cent on account of the m- 
creased use of such stock by the pulp mills in Sweden. Both pine 
and spruce and some birch props are shipped. The birch props are 
used m the manufacture of bobbins. 

Of phie and spruce props there are two kinds, long and short 
props. The long props are 3 inches in top diameter and are 10 feet 
and up in length. The average length is generally 14 to 16 feet. 
This prop is usually crosscut to suitable size at the mines. Short 
props are shipped in lengths from 2^ to 8 or 9 feet. 

The general rules in connection with prop shipments stipulate 
that the number of feet in length must not be less than the number 
of inches in top diameter. The props are shipped either barked or 
with the bark partly stripped. 

Props are usually sold by the cubic fathom, or 216 cubic feet. 
Tlie prices before the war varied a great deal because prop shipments 
are usually handled by small exporters and speculators who have not 
regulated their output or prices. 

Much unfavorable comment is heard in Sweden about the system 
of measuring props in the importing countries, and there seems to be 
and urgent call for some kind of official institution for measuring 
props, such as has been established in Nomvay with very satisfactory 
results. The Swedish prop shippers have been more or less in the 
hands of the importers, as the props frequently have been paid for 
on the basis of measurements taken hi the importing countries. 

The prices before the war generally averaged about $11.50 per 
cubic fathom, f. o. b. central and southern Norrland ports, and $14.50, 
f. o. b. west coast of Sweden. During the war the prices for props 
advanced materially and as much as 150 to $55 was paid f. o. b. 
west coast of Sweden. 

The production of props has been for many years a menace to 
the Swedish forests, but hj the new forest law the production of 
props is greatly curtailed. Such stock from now on will be produced 
mainl}^ from timber cut in accordance with the improvement-thinning 
cutting system or from top logs, etc. It is believed that the shipments 
of props from Sweden will decline materially in years to come; and 
as laws similar to the Swedish are in effect in Finland, the production 
of props will probably be transferred to Russia, where the cutting 
regulations arc less strict . 

Props are sometimes cut in two and exported. For instance, 
from logs 4^ and 5 inches in top diameter, two piec(>s, 21 by 4^ and 
2^ by 5 inches, are obtained. The length varies from IV fe(>t and up; 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDtTSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 181 

it is usually 6 feet. This stock is usually shipped to the United 
Kjngdom. 

PULl" WOOD. 

It is natural that a country like Sweden with an important pulp 
industry can not have any large quantities of pulp wood for export^ 
because the Swedish pulp factories are in need oi very large quantities 
of this material. The pulp wood exported from Sweden goes almost 
exclusively to Norway, and is shipped only from such regions as are 
more accessible to Norwegian points than to the nearest Swedish 
pulp mills. 

HEAVY SQUARE TIMBER. 

Heavy square timber may be defined as timber 9 or more inches 
square at the middle. The lengths are 18 feet and more. This 
stock is shipped mostly from the west coast of Sweden and the 
northern parts of Norrland to Denmark and Germany. Pine is 
generally preferred. For reasons previously stated, the supply in 
Sweden oi this kind of timber is not very large. The maximmn 
dimensions obtained in any part of Sweden may be said to be 15 to 
16 inches square at the middle, and 50 to 60 feet long. Such stock, 
however, is extremely rare and would command heavy prices. The 
customary dimensions of heavy square' timber are 9, 10, 11, and 12 
inches square at the middle. The average length is about 22 feet. 
The average cubical contents, upon which basis the timber is sold, 
is generally 30 to 35 cubic feet. The timber is hewn in such a way 
that the piece is given a conical shape. The difference in the measure 
at the butt and at the top is generally 1 to 3 inches, depending upon 
the length. The timber is cut on the half foot in length and measured 
on the quarter mch in square. 

Considerable wane is allowed, extending from the middle of the 
piece toward the top. For instance, timber 10 inches at the butt 
may have 6^ inches of hewn surface at the top. The rules in regard 
to the wane vary greatly, however, with different shippers and differ- 
ent markets. 

The timber is graded into two grades, first and second, but very 
small quantities of second-grade timber are shipped. The require- 
ments in regard to first-grade stock are rather indefinite, but the 
general stipulation is that the timber must have no defects that 
would materially weaken it. No lar^e or rotten knots, no discolora- 
tion, and no heart shakes are admitted. The timber is generally 
stored under water to prevent checking. 

The prices obtained before the war, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, 
were approximately $0,40 per cubic foot, based on timber of 30 
cubic feet, and i7i 1918 about $1.35 per cubic foot was paid for the 
same dimension. 

HEWN AND SAWN SMALL TIMBER. 

Northern Norrland and the west coast of Sweden are the principal 
producers of hewn and sawn small timber, and it is shipped to the 
United Kingdom, France, Germany, Denmark, and Egypt, and a 
few other countries. Both pine and spruce small timber is cut and 
shipped in one quality only. The smair timber must not have so 
many nor so large knots as the heavy timber. The stipulations in 
regard to this stock vary greatly in the different countries to which 
it is shipped. 



182 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Tlio United Kingdom requires that the difference in measiiremont 
l)ctween the butt and the middle must not exceed 2 inches. If th(^ 
quality of the small timber is good, wane up to one-third of the lengtli 
of the piece, measured from the top toward the middle, may be al- 
lowed. For instance, timber 6 inches square at the middle may be 
4 inches square at the top. The dimensions shipped to the United 
Kmgdom vary from 4 to 6 inches square at the middle and tlio 
lengths from 12 feet and up. 

To Egypt, Germany, and Denmark small timber is shipped Jiewn, 
sawn, or planed in dimensions ranging from 3 by 3 inches and up. 
Denmark takes mostly pine stock, both hewni and sawn, but this 
market is rather strict in regard to the wane on sawn small timber. 
Hewn stock, on the other hand, admits of a large amount of wane. 
The small timber must be bright and dry and have no serious defects. 
The average length is about 15 feet. The hewn timber ma}^ admit 
of a larger amount of defects than sawn timber, but, on the other 
hand, the average length of hewn timber must generally be some- 
what greater than that of sawn timber. 

To Germany a special stock called ''Kantholz" is shipped, both 
of pine and spruce. Spruce, however, is preferred on account of the 
duty, which is based on the weight. The German importers prefer 
to have th^e stock sawn according to metric measurements. For 
such special sawn stock extra charges are naturally made by the 
Swedish exporters. The average lengths of "Kantholz" are 15 to 16 
feet. This stock may contain a large amount of wane; it may be 
stated in the contracts that the only requirements in this regard are 
that the saw must have touched all four sides of each piece. 

The small timber shipped to Egypt is of rather inferior quality and 
admits of a large amount of wane. This stock, however, must be 
bright and dry. For Egyptian small timber both pine and spruce 
are used and the stock is hewn. The dimensions vary considerably 
and the lengths are generally 12^, 15f , ISf , 22, and 25 feet. 

Following are the items in a typical shipment of 1,000 pieces of 
this small timber to the Egyptian market: 



Lengths. 


Width and 
tliickness. 


Pieces. 


Fcef. 


Inches. 






(3 bv 3 


170 


12i 


I3bv4 


120 


]4bV4 


110 




|4by 5 


70 




(3 by 3 


50 


15J 


l3 by 4 


50 


I4bv4 


150 




14 by 5 


100 




(3 by 3 


10 


IXJ 


J3bv4 


10 


l4by 4 


90 




U bv 5 


50 


22 


/4 by 4 
t4 bv 5 


5 
5 


25 


;4by4 
\4by5 


5 


5 



The prices of small timber, f. o. b. Norrland ports, were as follows 
before the war: Kantholz for Germany, measuring 4 by 4 to 6 by 6 
inches, sold at 13.1 cents per cubic fool; 6 by 7 to 8 by 8 inches, 14.3 
cents per cubic foot. These prices were based on timber IS feet and 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 183 



more in length; shorter lengths were two-thirds of these prices. 
vSmall timber for Egypt varied in price from 10 to 12 cents per cubic 
foot. Small timber for France from 4 to 5 J inches square sold at 17 
cents per cubic foot; 6 to 6| inches square, 18 cents; 7 to 7f inches 
square, 20 cents; and 8 inches square, 21 cents. These prices were 
based on lengths 18 feet and up. Shorter lengths v/ere sold at two- 
thirds of these prices. Small square timber for the United Kingdom 
generally commanded 12 cents per cubic foot in lengths of 18 feet 
and up. Shorter stock was sold at two-thirds of this price. Small 
timber for Denmark was generally sold at 25 to 30 cents per cubic 
foot, according to dimensions. During 1918 the average prices for 
small timber ranged from 60 to 85 cents per cubic foot. The follow- 
ing is an example of prices for the Danish market in 1918: 3 by 4 
inches, 60 cents per cubic foot; 4 by 4 inches, 61 cents; 4 by 5 and 5 
by 5 inches, 64 cents; 5 by 6 and 6 by 6 inches, 67 cents; 6 by 7 
and 7 by 7 inches, 69 cents; 8 by 8 inches, 76 cents; 9 by 9 inches, 
85 cents. 

The output of small timber may be affected seriously by the new 
forest laws in Sweden, which will restrict the cutting of young forests. 

RAILROAD TIES. 

The exports of railroad ties from Sweden are not important, as even 
the Swedish railways at times have difficulty in obtaining the necessary 
material of this kind. The Swedish Government, therefore, had to 
construct a sawmill for cutting ties, producing about 1,000,000 ties 
annually. 

The United Kingdom and Denmark are practically the only markets 
for Swedish ties, which are usually produced on the west coast of 
Sweden. The ties shipped to England are generally used in the 
mines. (The dimensions of the ties have been given under the 
section on ''Sawmilling.") 

Ties produced by private mills in Sweden for domestic consumption 
contain 34 cubic feet, and the following average prices have been 
obtained during the last five years: 1914, $0.67 per tie; 1915, $0,723; 
1916, $0,938; 1917, $1,206; 1918, $1,742. 

The ties exported to Denmark are somewhat smaller than the ties 
used in Sweden and the price paid in 1918 was $2.15 per tie delivered 
f. o. b. Swedish west-coast ports. 

MARKETS FOR SWEDISH LUMBER EXPORTS. 

During the years immediately previous to the war Sweden ex- 

Eanded its activities over a larger field abroad. When the war 
roke out this development of the lumber export trade to countries 
outside of Europe was curtailed to a great extent. 

The following table shows the percentage of the Swedish exports 
of planed and rough lumber (pine and spruce) , including box shooks, 
that was sold to each continent from 1905 to 1916: 



Continents. 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


Europe 


Perct. 

94.1 

5.2 

.1 

.4 

.2 


Percl. 

94.1 

4.8 

.1 

.6 

.4 


Perct. 

93.3 

5.5 

.1 

.6 

.5 


Perct. 

91.0 

7.1 

.1 

1.4 

.4 


Perct. 

91.4 

6.5 

.3 

1.3 

.5 


Perct. 

86.6 

9.6 

.5 

2.6 

.7 


Perct. 

85.9 

9.3 

.6 

3.1 

1.1 


Perk. 

87.2 

9.0 

.8 

1.8 

1.2 


Percl. 

87.2 

9.5 

.4 

2.3 

.6 


Perct. 

91.7 

5.5 

.4 

2.0 

.4 


Perct. 

96.9 

2.5 

.1 

.4 

.1 


Perct. 
97.2 


Africa 


2.6 


Asia 


.2 


Australia 

America 


.0 
.0 







184 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

A detailed statement in regard to the percentage of rough lumber 
and planed lumber exported to the different continents may be 
found in tlu^ a])j)endix. 

SfflPPING CONDITIONS. 

While the ports on the western and southern coasts of Sweden 
are open the year round, this is not the case with the ports facing 
the Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia, Large stocks of lumber are 
therefore accumulated during the winter for shipment by the first 
open water. These stocks usually aggregate about 1,000,000,000 
board feet when navigation opens in the spring. In late years, 
however, the southeastern ports of Sweden have been kept open 
by ice breakers, but the lumber shipments for export from these 
ports are not very important. The snipping season of the principal 
lumber-exporting districts does not start until the end of April, at 
which time the southern Norrland ports are open to navigation. 

During the month of May the other ports lying north of this 
district can resume shipping, which is carried on until the water 
freezes sometime in the late fall, about the middle of November 
in the northern ports. In the southern Norrland ports navigation 
may be open until the latter half of December. 

The following schedule gives an approximate idea of the percent- 
ages of a normal year's exports of lumber from Sweden shipped during 
the different months: 

Per cent. 

January-May 24 

June : 11 

July 13 

August 11 

The Swedish ports are very satisfactory and are usually protected 
by islands. The tidewater in the northern ports does not interfere 
at all with the shipping, as the Gulf of Bothnia may be considered 
almost an inland sea. 

While in Norrland and on the east coast lumber exports are 
usually effected by vessels durmg normal times, southern Sweden 
ships important quantities by rail to Denmark. This market is 
supplied by many small mills in southern and central Sweden cater- 
ing to this trade and the lumber is taken across the narrow sound 
on ferryboats. During the war this rail shipment increased on 
account of the high ocean freight rates and heavy insurance premiums 
demanded. Even the mills up in southern and central Norrland 
shipped lumber in this way to Denmark. 

Considerable quantities of lumber are shipped to Norway by rail 
during normal years from interior mills located at a distance from 
Swedish ports. The rail shipments to Norway increased very 
materially during the war. While the average normal quantity of 
lumber shipped by rail to Norway was about 90,000,000 feet board 
measure, this quantity nearly doubled during the latter part of the 
war. A large percentage of the Swedish lumber exported to Norway 
is consumed in that country, but probably most of it is planed or 
otherwise manufactured and reexported. 

The natural outlet for Swedish lumber from Norrland is by water, 
and as soon as normal conditions are restored rail shipments will 



Per cent. 

September 11 

October 13 

November 10 

December 7 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 83.— PILING WITH CRANES. 




FIG. 64.— LUMBER PILED SOLID AND PROTECTED BY TRIPLE ROOF. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




PIG. 85.— PILING LUMBER SO AS TO LEAVE ENDS 3 OR 4 
INCHES LONG PROTRUDING FROM PILE. 








FIG. 86.— METHOD OF PILIIK, WITH HIGH BASE AND PERFECTLY CLEAN 

BOTTOMS. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 185 

decrease. There \vi\\ always be some rail shipments to Norway aud 
Denmark, however, from certam mterior mill districts in Sweden. 

Owing to the difficult conditions in regard to shippui^ during the 
war, several mills in Norrland shipped important quantities of lum- 
ber onbarges inside the 3-mile limit to southwestern Sweden and stored 
the lumber in the ports until the followiii^ winter, when the prices 
went up on account of the limited quantities available for shipment 
from the parts of Sweden with ports open the year round. This 
shipping system was very expensive, as the storage charges on the 
west coast were heavy and usually very small profits, if any, resulted. 
This system was discoaitinued by most of the firms toward the end 
of the war. It must be considered as a war measure only. 

Some mills also tried to reach foreign markets via Norwegian ports, 
but the difficulties in regard to securing storage space for lumber and 
the high charges for transshipment prevented the Swedish exporters 
from making much of a success of this undertaking. There may 
have been also, in many cases, obstructions on the part of Norwegian 
exporters who did not like to see the Swedish lumber pass out of their 
hands by being shipped dhect. 

Owing to the shortage of coal and cars during the war, the Swedish 
Government made a ruling that lumber could be shipped by rail only 
through its regular channels before the war and besides compensa- 
tion in coal was demanded in case of such rail shipments. 

RAILWAY FREIGHT RATES. 

Before the war the cost of shipment by rail during the winter from 
the mills on the Wenner Lake to Goteborg was approximately $2 to 
$3.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. In 1918, the charges were $7.50 
to $10. These charges include loading on cars, railroad freight, and 
transshipping to steamer in Goteborg. 

The charges per 1,000 feet board measure for transshipment of 
planed and rough lumber, held for different storage periods in the 
port of Goteborg, were as follows : 



storage periods. 



16 days 
25 days 
35 days 



Planed 
lumber. 



S2.17 
2.79 
3.45 



Rough 
lumber. 



$2.03 
2.50 
3.18 



Storage periods. 



Planed 
lumber. 



45 days $4.12 

60 davs .'). 15 

90davs 7.04 



Rough 
lumber. 



$3.86 
4.87 
6.78 



In some cases, both during and before the war, lumber was shipped 
by rail to Goteborg even from points in central Norrland. The rates 
before the war, including storage charges in Goteborg, were about 
$4.50 to $5.25 per 1,000 feet and in 1918 about $21.50. 

The rates for shipment of planed lumber from the sawmill districts 
in Jemtland, in the interior of central Norrland, to the Norwegian 
port of Trondhjem were $1.35 to $1.50 per 1,000 feet in 1913, and 
$4 to $4.50 in 1918. For rough stock the charges were $1.55 to $1.65 
in 1913 and $5.25 to $7 in 1918. 

On August 1, 1919, another heavy increase was made in railroad 
freight and the present rates in Sweden represent about 250 per cent 
increase above the pre-war rates. This has had a very serious efl"ect 



186 SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

on rail shipments in Sweden and has also affected the charcoal 
industry to such an extent that many mills have been forced to 
discontinue the operation of their charcoal plants. 

STEAMSHIP LINES AND TONNAGE QUESTION. 

While the Swedish west-coast shippers have enjoyed the benefits, 
of direct liners, the Norrland ports nave not been in the same favor- 
able position. Only a few liners at times touched the Norrland ports 
before the war, as the steamers generally managed to obtain full 
cargoes in southwestern Sweden and in southeastern Noi'way. 
Before the war the west coast of Sweden had steamship connections 
with practically every important lumber market in the world, as is 
shown by the following list of countries served by steamers from 
Goteborg: France (Channel, Bay of Biscay, and Mediterranean 
ports); Belgium, the Netherlands, United Kingdom (east, south, and 
west coasts), Denmark, Norway, Germany, Spain (Bay of Biscay 
and Mediterranean ports), Portugal, Italy, Balkan ports, and the 
Levant, South America (east and west coasts), British India, Dutch 
East Indies, Persian Gulf and Red Sea ports, Canary Islands, North 
Africa, South Africa, East Africa, West Africa, and Australia. Some 
of these lines were Norwegian and some were of other nationalities, but 
the Swedish shipowners greatly developed this system of regular 
steamship lines during the last few years before the war. The war 
interrupted this development, but during 1919 most of the old- 
established lines resumed operations and several new lines were estab- 
lished, while others are contemplated. The Swedish and the Nor- 
wegian steamship lines closely cooperate in regard to the expansion 
of their activities. Some of the Swedish steamship lines had Govern- 
ment subsidies before the war, but during the war several of them 
voluntarily returned the amounts received from the Government. 

Sweden has not at present suitable timber for shipbuilding pur- 
poses, and the art of building wooden ships is almost forgotten. A 
type of smaller vessels has been inaugurated lately by one miU 
in the Wenner district, having access to the ocean through the canal 
in the Gota River. The boats built for this mill have a capacity 
of 600,000 to 800,000 feet board measure and are equipped with 
auxihary motors. Such ships can easily cross the North Sea, and it 
is even planned to have them go as far as the Mediterranean countries, 
so that the cargoes will not have to be transshipped in Swedish ocean 
ports. It is almost certain that this type of steamer will be found 
very suitable, as they can easily reach Em'opean ports where larger 
steamers have difficulty in entering. 

Other miUs have constructed barges of a larger capacity provided 
with auxiliary oil-burning engines. 

For many years plans have been under consideration to keep the 
Norrland ports open to navigation the year round by ice breakers. 
Although this plan has not yet been fully reahzed, the shipping season 
has been extended every year by means of ice breakei-s. 

In 1918 this movement was again started and received official 
support. It was planned to establish a service of powerful ice break- 
ers along the Norrland coast, assisted by a series of local ice breakers, 
and it was expected to have all important ports open at least through 
the greater part of the winter. If this scheme is successfully carried 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 187 

out ill the future, it will have an important influence upon the market, 
as Sweden will then be enabled to sliip lumber the year round. 

The plan has many practical difficulties, however, and it may not 
benefit the lumber industry to such an extent as is generally believed. 
Lumber can usually be loaded only from barges, and it will be very 
difficult and in many cases almost impossible to load in this way during 
the winter. For the pulp mills, on the other hand, such a plan would 
be of the utmost importance, as the vessels may load from the dock. 

The districts around Lake Wenner in central Sweden are in an espe- 
cially advantageous position in regard to shipping. A system of canals 
connects this lake and the surrounding water systems with the Catte- 
gat, and ships up to about 1,500 tons may pass through this canal 
and load at the mills on the northern shore of the lake. • Lake Wenner 
has an area of about 2,400 square miles and borders on a very impor- 
tant lumber region. It is planned to employ ice breakers in the canal 
and on the lake to keep navigation open the year round. 

RAFTING OF SAWN LUMBER. 

In 1918 a Swedish company, Aktiebolaget Refanut, was organized 
in Stockholm to exploit the patents of rafting sawn lumber. The 
idea of rafting sawn lumber is new, although rafting logs has been 
practiced for a long time on the Pacific coast of the United States, and 
in' Finland and northern SAveden. Aktiebalaget Refanut conceived 
the idea of extending the rafting to sawn lumber during the war; in 
pre-war days the freight rates had been so low that there seemed to 
be a limited call for such a system. During the war freight rates 
advanced to such a height that the northernmost districts on the 
Gulf of Bothnia found it exceedingly difficult to have their stocks 
shipped, and many companies had more than 50 per cent of the 
annual production in their yards at the end of the shipping season. 
The time seemed opportune for an attempt to raft sawn lumber, and 
during the autumn of 1918 a huge raft containing approximately 
4,200,000 board feet of sawn lumber, consisting mainly of fifth-grade 
stock, was towed from Haparanda district in northern Sweden to 
Copenhagen, a distance of about 1,000 miles. This raft was 365 
feet long, 50 feet wide, and 25 feet deep, and had a draft of 15 feet 
5 inches. It was constructed very solidly and bound with steel wire. 
The raft arrived in good condition, and the first attempt to raft sawn 
lumber was accomphshed successfully. 

As this matter of rafting is of vital importance to the lumber ex- 
porters in the United States, where attempts have been contem- 
plated to raft lumber across the Atlantic, it may be of interest to 
consider a report made by Lloyd's surveyor in Stockholm in this 
connection. An extract from this report reads as f oUows : 

The bottom structure of the raft consists of foiu: tiers of longitudinal beams or girders, 
each consisting of two tiers of 8 by 6 inch pine beams, bolted, the one tier on top of 
the other, by means of 1-inch screw bolts. These girders are connected crosswise by 
means of 8 by 8 inch beams and IJ-inch screw bolts at the crossings. 

Forward and aft this bottom structure is pointed, the angles at both ends being 60°. 

On this bottom frame the first layer, consisting of 11 by 4 inch deals, is laid longi- 
tudinally, with the butts well shifted. The next, or second, layer is laid on top of the 
longitudinal layer at an angle of 30° on one side. The next, or third, layer is laid on 
top of the second one at an angle of 30° with the longitudinal direction, but on the 
opposite side. The next, or fourth, layer again is laid longitudinally, and so on. 

In addition, a few layers are dispersed throughout the body of the raft at right angles 
to the longitudinal direction. 



188 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

It is assumed that by this distribution of the component tiers of the raft the longi- 
tudinal or bending stresses in the body, caused by the action of the waves, weight of 
deck cargo, etc.. will be absorbed by the longitudinal tiers, whereas any tendency 
toward " corkscre^ving " in a seaway, caused by waves striking in an oblique direction, 
will be counteracted by the diagonal and athwartship tiers. 

Aktiebolaget Refanut's object was to test the question whether, 
practically speaking, the natural adhesion between the surfaces of 
sawn wood was sufficient, if supplemented by a reasonable amount 
of cable bindings, to withstand the disintegrating effect of long sea 
voyages, and it must be said that the result was satisfactory under 
the conditions encountered in the Baltic. 

To quote again from Lloyd's report: 

In the southern part of the Baltic, however, a sea rose 2 to 3 meters (7 to 10 feet) in 
height, and then the midshij) portion of the raft was foimd to rise and drop relatively 
on both ends within the limits of 2J and 4J- inches between the extreme positions, 
thus showing that an actual deflection from the horizontal line of the deck took place 
of 4f inches as a maximum, a deflection which is thus practically equal to the deflec- 
tion of the bottom, caiised by a deck load of 198 tons, as ascertained through, the soimd- 
ings above recorded. 

The observations appear to corroborate the opinion of the originator and the designer 
that the internal pressure between the component parts of the raft is sufficient for 
practically altering the friction or adhesion between these parts so much that it may 
be considered equal to the cohesion in a solid log or beam. In particular, the good 
elastic properties of the main body of the raft, if the weak, pointed ends be disregarded, 
is really striking and appears to support this theory materially. 

Finally, Lloyd's report on the underwriting point of view states: 

That rafts, of the general design shown on the appended plan, appear to possess suffi- 
cient rigidity to resist the action of even a fairly rough sea; 

That the waves of about 10 feet in height, encountered on this first voyage with a 
lashed raft of sawn wood, termed "refanute," when striking against the bow and 
sides, have not caused any damage whatever; 

That the working in a seaway of tMs raft more than 328 feet in length, and the period- 
ical deflections from the horizontal of the main body of the raft between the wedge- 
shaped ends, are insignificant and probably less than those that may be observed on 
the null of a cargo steamer of the same length, loaded with hea^'y cargo: 

That the permanent set of the deck line is practically nil ; and 

That the network of steel wires has been found to be judiciously' dispersed over the 
surface of the raft and has actually prevented any part of the surface wood from com- 
ing adrift or even loosening the fii'm adherence to the adjacent parts of the ' ' refanute, ' ' 
which appears to be the "springing point" and the underlying principle of this new 
kind of transportation of sawn wood. 

Provided that Aktiebolaget Refanut can satisfy underwriters that the same consci- 
entious attention to details of stowing and binding together be given to future constnic- 
tions. as has been bestowed on the "Refanut I," I consider the risk on insurance of 
this kind of craft — apart from the fact that about five-eighths of the "cargo' ' is or may 
be soaked with water from the outset — ^little if at all greater than that on the large 
deck cargoes of sawn wood, usually carried across the North Sea. 

But I beg to emphasize that I do not recommend promiscuous insurance of this kind 
of craft, irrespective of its origin and construction. I understand that Aktiebolaget 
Refanut is patenting the main features of the new construction and have registered 
the name "Refanut" in different countries. Their future rafts, or "refanutes," will 
all liear this name with consecutive numbers, so that even their name will become a 
Mnd of guaranty of a certain type of raft and class of work in its construction. 

While a raft of logs once broken is hopelessly dispersed, sawn 
lumber has often shown an astonishing cohesion, and it is believed 
that in case of accident, the greater percentage of such rafts could be 
salvaged. Naturally the lumber will suffer somewhat from sea 
water, but recent improvements made on the Refanut will overcome 
these difficulties to a great extent. It is claimed that the freight on 
this raft from northern Sweden to Copenhagen was only one-fifth of 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 189 



the freight rates for the same quantity of lumber carried in the regular 
way. 

Early in the spring of 1919 a raft of sawn lumber, constructed on 
lines similar to the Refanut, was transported from Trondhjem in 
northern Norway to the east coast of the United Kingdom. Although 
the North Sea, which is very shallow, is one of the most difficult 
crossings to make, this rafting turned out successfully. 

It appears that Aktiebolaget Refanut Co. intends to make further 
experiments to perfect this system and that this question has already 
been taken up with American interests by the Swedish company. 

Figure 108 shows the construction of the first Refanut, which was 
towed to Denmark. 

OCEAN FREIGHT RATES. 

Although the pre-war freight rates will probably never obtain 
again, it may be of interest to see how the low rates then prevailing 
enabled the Swedish exporters to reach such far-away countries as 
Australia and South Africa. 

The freight rates before the war were fairty stable. Many ports in 
Sweden enjoyed the privilege of having direct liners to the principal 
foreign markets, and a large percentage of the lumber shipped from 
the west coast was sent on the regular liners. The freight from the 
west-coast district to the east-coast ports of the United Kingdom at 
times was as low as $1.25 to $1.50 per 1,000 feet board measure, but 
the rates from the Baltic and Gulf of Bothnia ports were somewhat 
higher. On an average the freights per 1,000 feet board measm-e 
from the Hernosand district to various destinations were about as 
follows before the war: 

Northern Africa $7. 50-$9. 00 

6.14 
n.00 
12. 25 
12.50 
10.50 
10. 25 
9.85 



Canary Islands. 

Algoa Bay and Ca])e Town. 

East London and Durban. . 

Delagoa Bay 

Freemantle 

Adelaide 

Melbourne and Sydney 



United Kingdom east-coast 

ports .". $2. 50-$3. 30 

Germany 1. 75- 2. 25 

Netherlands and Belgium... 2. 75- 3. 00 

France (Channel ports) 2. 80- 3. 25 

Northern Spain 4. 00- 5. 00 

Mediterranean ports (Spain 

and France) 7.00- 8. 50 

Other Mediterranean ports. . 7. 50- 8. 50 

The freights from the Swedish west coast to South yVfrica and Aus- 
tralia were $1.25 less. The rate from the Hernosand district to Mel- 
bourne and Sydney by sailing vessel was $7.35 per 1,000 feet. 

In many cases very low rates could be obtained on lumber from 
the west coast, especially when steamers desired parcel lots to com- 
plete a cargo. The record rate is said to have been obtained a few 
years before the war broke out, when a steamer was chartered to 
load at five different mills in the Hernosand district for the United 
Kingdom east-coast ports at about $2.08 per 1,000 feet. 

The difference in freight between the various ports in Norrland and 
the southeastern coast of Sweden was not very large before the war. 
Between the ports in the upper-gulf and in the Hernosand district, 
the difference in freight would be about $0.61 to $1.23 per 1,000 feet. 
The difference between the Hernosand district and the lower-gulf 
district did not vary very much — at times about $0.61 per 1,000 feet. 

A large percentage of the lumber exported, particularly to the 
Mediterranean comitries and the British colonies, was shipped in 
sailing vessels. Most of the lumber to South America was shipped 



190 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

from Gotebor^ on the west coast by the regTilar liners between this 
port and South America. The freight rates from Goteborg or Stock- 
nohn to the various ports in South America in 1913 were about as 
follows, per 1,000 feet board measure: Pernambuco, S14; Rio de 
Janeiro, $11; Santos, $12; Bahia Blanca, $18.50; Montevideo, $9.50; 
Buenos Aires, $9.50. 

Deck cargoes were sometimes shipped at two-thirds of the regular 
rates to the Mediterranean countries and a few others, but in most 
cases deck cargoes paid full freight. Short lumber (6, 7, and 8 feet), 
constituting 3 to 5 per cent of the cargo was sometimes freighted at 
two-thirds of the regular rate on sailing vessels, but on steamers full 
freight was always paid. 

During the war the freight rates increased many tunes and even 
$50 to $60 per 1,000 feet board measure was paid for lumber cargoes 
from Goteborg to the east coast of the United Kingdom. However, 
these freight rates are of no interest at the present time, as they 
were abnormal. It is difficult to pronoimce anything definite upon 
the freight rate for the future, as this question is very unsettled. 
Recently the Swedish shipowners entered into an agreement with 
the United Kingdom with regard to tonnage and the following rates 
per 1 ,000 board feet applied for lumber shipped from Sweden to that 
country (October, 1919) : Hernosand to east coast ports of the United 
Kingdom, $21.80; Hernosand to west coast ports of the United King- 
dom, $23.05; Swedish w^est coast ports to east coast ports of the 
United Kingdom, $12.90. For other European countries the freight 
rates vary from one day to another. From the Swedish west coast 
ports to northern France, about $19 to $20 per 1,000 feet, board 
measure, is generally paid, and to the same markets from Hernosand 
about $30. To the Netherlands and Belgium the rates are somewhat 
lower; for the Netherlands the rate is about $25 from Hernosand. 

It is estimated that the higher the freight rates the better opportu- 
nity the Swedes have for controlling European markets, without com- 
petirion from countries outside of Europe; and by the time freight 
rates have come down to reasonable figures, the Swedish lumber 
exporters will have the advantage of several new steamship lines. 

MARINE INSURANCE. 

The insurance rates difi'ered considerably before the war during 
the various seasons of the year. On an average, the premium paid 
was about ^ of 1 per cent to 1|^ per cent during normal times. For 
sailing vessels the charges were heavier. During the war 10 per cent 
premium for marine insurance was not an unusual charge and even 
as higk as 30 per cent was paid in March, 1917, from Goteborg to 
United Kingdom east coast ports. Since the armistice, the rates of 
insurance have come down to about the pre-war level. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 191 



The following table gives the normal marine-insurance rates at 
various seasons, affecting lumber cargoes from the east coast of Swe- 
den, to the principal markets: 



Dates of sliipment. 



Apr. 1-July31.. 
Aug. 1-Aug. 10.. 
Aug, 11-Aiig. 15. 
Aug. 16-Aug. 20. 
Aug. 21-Aug. 31. 
Sept. 1-Sept. 10. 
Sept. 11-SeDt. 15 
Sept. 1(>-Sept. 20 
Sept. 21-Sept. 25 
Sept. 2f>-Sept. 30 
Oct. 1-Oct. 5. . . . 
Oct. 6-Oct. 10... 
Oct. 11-Oct. 15.. 
Oct. ir>-Oct. 20. . 
Oct. 21-Oct. 25. . 
Oct. 26-Oct. 31.. 
Nov. 1-Mar. 31.. 



To east 
coast of 
TTnlted 

Kingdom. 



Per cent. 



To west 

coast of 

United 

Kingdom. 



To western 
France^ 
Bay Of 
Biscay 
ports, Por- 
tugal and 
south coast 
of Spain 
east to 
Gibraltar. 



Per cent. 



Per cent. 



To Med- 
iterranean 
countries. 



Per cent. 



The rates from the east coast of Sweden to the channel ports of 
France and England were usually the same as for the east coast of 
the United Kingdom. 

The rates to South Africa were generally about 10 per cent higher, 
and the rates to South America and Australia about. 15 per cent 
higher than the rates to the Mediterranean countries. 

SHIPPING REGIONS. 

• 

Ever since the lumber export trade of Sweden started on a big 
scale some 60 years ago, the importers have differentiated between 
the lumber products shipped from the various Swedish districts. 
The wood in the northern regions shows very pronounced qualities, 
such as solid texture, while in the southern districts of Sweden the 
wood is often more coarse-grained and pulpy. At present most of 
the virgin forests are cut out and the mills are more dependent upon 
obtaining their log supply from other sources. The differentiation 
now made is to a large extent, in regard to the product of different 
shippers; it is not based exclusivel}^ on shipping districts. The larger 
importers and agents, who generally are well posted on local condi- 
tions in Sweden, know the character of the shipments from most ot the 
prominent exporters, and the prices paid for lumber may vary con- 
siderably for the products of different exporters in tne same districts. 
Many shippers have obtained a good reputation among importers and 
consumers and by branding their products may be able to obtain a 
better price than their competitors although they may use the 
same raw material and the same manufacturing methods. 

The best proof of this situation is that Swedish lumber exporters 
m several of the largest districts in Norrland take an important per- 
centage of their log supply from northern Finland and, using the 



192 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

same raw material as their Finnish competitors, obtain for their prod- 
uct several dollars more per 1,000 board feet. Logs are often taken 
from other districts in Sweden than from the section of the country 
where the mills have their forests. Sawn lumber also is barged from 
one sawmill district to another. For instance, lumber from Herno- 
sand, which was sold at about 61 cents per 1,000 feet less than lumber 
from Sundsvall, farther south, was often barged to that port at a 
cost of about 13 cents per 1,000 feet, the Sundsvall exporters thereby- 
making a profit of 48 cents per 1,000 feet. i 

It is evident that one can no longer make any accurate differen- 
tiation between the lumber products of the Swedish shipping dis- 
tricts; but the differentiation must be made in regard to the prod- 
ucts of each individual exporter. If the mills have been able to 
maintain their good standing amono; the importers for shipping 
quality lumber, in spite of the fact that they are taking logs from 
other districts, they have done so through careful grading and 
efficient manufacturing and selling. 

The following table shows the exports from different districts of 
Sweden in 1913 of pine and spruce planks, battens, and boards 
rough and planed (not including box shooks, staves, etc.): 



Sliipping districts. 



Rough 
lumber. 



Planed 
lumber. 



Total 

rough and 

planed. 



Haparanda, Lulea, Pitea, and Skelleftea. 
Umea and Ornskoldsvik 



Mfiet. 

■ 260,313 
122, 171 
269, 678 
256, 552 
385, 9S0 



Hernosand 

Sundsvall 

Hudiksvall, Soderhamn, and Cievle , — , -- 

Stockholm-Malmo(including Gotland I land) i 194, 205 

West-coast district ! 113, 125 

Districts bordering on Norway [ 42, 610 

other districts , 24, 439 



Mfcct. 

1,461 
40, 134 

9,085 
81,004 
60, 757 
33,802 
38, 101 
20, 575 

5,324 



At feet. 
261, 774 
162, 305 
278, 763 
337, 556 
446, 737 
228, 007 
151, 226 
m, 185 
29,763 



Total 1, 669, 073 



290, 243 



1,959,316 



UPPER-GULF REGION. 

The upper-gulf district extends south from the Finnish border to 
a few nmes north of the Angermann River and comprises the follow- 
ing districts: Haparanda, Lulea, Pitea, Skelleftea, Umea, and 
Ornskoldsvik. In the northern part of this region there were for- 
merly several mdls of medium size, but during the war a consolida- 
tion process took place, and one company now practically monopo- 
lizes the whole export trade in this part of the upper gulf. In the 
southern part of the upper-gulf district there are several very impor- 
tant mills, some are operated in connection wdth planing mills and 
pulp factories. 

The pine from the upper gulf, particularly in the north, is of a 
reddish color and contains a larger percentage of heart than is found 
in the other districts of Sweden. The lumber is very knotty, how- 
ever, and logs cut from overmature stands often contain many 
defects, so that it has been necessary in several instances to create 
an extra grade of cull lumber, usually termed "seventh grade.'' 
The pine from these regions is in gi'eat favor with the British, Egyp- 
tian, and other importers. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXFORT TRADE. 193 

The spruce is not considered so satisfactory as the pine in the 
northernmost districts, but in the southern part of the upper gulf 
excellent spruce is found. 

The lumber from the upper gulf may be classified as good con- 
struction lumber, although it is commonly considered not to have 
the same breaking strength as lumber taken from districts farther 
south, owing to the shorter fiber of the wood. This, however, is 
more theory than a scientifically proven fact and may be vigorously 
opposed by the lumber exporters in the upper gulf. 

The lumber in the nortthernmost part is not suitable for planing 
purposes on account of its many knots. It is therefore sold only in 
one unsorted grade and two or three grades for cull stock. 

The normal production in the upper gulf may be considered to be 
about 80 per cent pine and 20 per cent spruce, about 75 per cent 
of which would be graded as unsorted, 20 per cent fifth, and 5 per 
per cent sixth and seventh grade. 

In the southern districts of the upper gulf the. result of the grading 
would show a distinct improvement. More spruce lumber also is 
produced in these districts, and it is of excellent quality. 

The lumber from the upper-gulf region is handicapped in regard to 
shipping facilities. The freight rates are usually higher than from 
other districts, and no direct steamship lines touch the ports, because 
this region consists almost exclusively of sawmill districts and it is 
difficult for shipowners to obtain cargoes for these ports. Particu- 
larly during the war, many mills found themselves with large quan- 
tities of lumber that they were unable to ship on account oi the 
exorbitant freight rates. Moreover, the sliipping season is short, as 
the ports are closed by ice in the autumn and the ice breaks up very 
late in the spring. For these reasons the prices are lower than for 
most of the other districts in Sweden, although the lumber itself is 
considered to be more satisfactory than that from many other 
districts. 

Navigation opens in the northernmost parts of this region at the 
end of May and closes early in November; in the southernmost dis- 
tricts navigation is open at the beginning of May and closes in the 
beginning or middle of December. 

HERNOSAND REGION. 

Hernosand region, one of the most important in Sweden, comprises 
the land bordering the Angermann River and a narrow strip north 
and south of the river along the Gulf of Bothnia. Many mills are 
found on both sides of the river, which is navigable for about 70 
miles, allowing steamers of any size to go up to the mills at this 
distance. The mills are usually smaller than in the other districts 
in Norrland. There is also a large pulp industry, affording good 
marketing conditions for the mill refuse. A number of planing mills 
are operated in connection with the sawmills. 

The lumber from the Hernosand region seems to be rather uniform 
in regard to manufacture and trading, in spite of the fact that this 
territory has a large number of mills. The sawmills frequently co- 
operate in regard to the grading and sawing, etc., and shipments 
from the Hernosand district are considered in the general lumber 
2092°— 21 13 



194 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUIMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

trade as typical Swedish standard products. When export prices are 
quoted, the Hernosand district is frequently made the basis, and 
the prices for the other districts are calculated by adding or subtract- 
ing the customary difference. 

Formerly this region was almost exclusively a spruce-exporting 
district. The spruce lumber is of excellent quality and the wood 
is of an intense white color. The knots are small and firm and the 
wood is very dense. Lately, however, pine has been exported in a 
larger proportion than before, and the quality is good, although the 
pine from this section is not so well known as the spruce. The pro- 
portion of pine and spruce is about 55 per cent of spruce and 45 per 
oent of pine. In this district certain dimensions, especially of spruce, 
are classified into six grades, but the remainder is sorted into un- 
sorted, fifth, and sixth grades. 

The 3 by 9 inch spruce planks from Hernosand are much in demand 
in the French market, and this dimension is graded into six q^ualities. 
The grading of some of the representative Hernosand-distnct mills 
for 3 by 9 inch spruce planks shows the following result: First 
quality, 5 per cent; second quality, 10 per cent; third quality, SOper 
cent; fourth quality, 35 per cent; The percentage of fifth and sixth 
grades may vary a great deal. 

For the mills under discussion, the percentage of fifth and sixth 
grades combined amounted to 8 per cent of the total production of 
all grades. The result of the grading of the other dimensions of pine 
and spruce was 80 per cent luisorted, 9 per cent fifth, and 1 1 per cent 
sixth grade. The percentage of cull lumber is dependent largely 
upon tlie age of the timber stands. 

One year a tract of overmature stands in a forest may be cut and 
the percentage of cull lumber consequently would be very large. 
The following year second-growth stands may be logged, and the 
percentage of cull in such a case may be very small. The virgin forests 
in this district are nearly all cut out now; only in the most remote 
mountain districts are there limited areas left. 

It is commonly considered that the grading of the Hernosand dis- 
trict is somewhat less strict than that of the districts farther south in 
Norrland. Particularly is this true in regard to the amount of wane. 
However, the difference in grading is not very considerable between 
the Hernosand and the lower-gulf region and it can not be demon- 
strated satisfactorily in writing. 

Navigation opens about the middle of April and closes at the end 
of December or the beginning of January. 

LOWEE-GULF REGION. 

The lower-gulf region extends south from about 15 miles north of 
Sundsvall to about 60° latitude and constitutes by far the most im- 
portant lumber export region in Sweden. It comprises the follow- 
ing shipping districts: Sundsvall, Hudiksvall, Soderhamn, and Gevle. 

The largest sawmills in Sweden are located in this region, which 
also has an important planing-mill industiy. Some mills located in 
the interior sections maintain yards at the ports. This region is 
also an important producer of pulp and paper and some mills 
operate their own railroads for transporting the lumber from the 
interior. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 195 

The quality of the output of the different standard mills in the 
lower-gulf region is considered uniform, although the southernmost 
districts generall}'" have a larger percentage of clear lumher. Sunds- 
vall and Hudiksvall, the two northernmost shipping districts in the 
lower-gulf region, are especially noted for their excellent spruce, 
while the quality of the pine of the southern shipping districts is 
better than that of the spruce in the same districts. 

In the Sundsvall district only certain dimensions of pine and spruce 
are graded into six equalities; the remainder is graded as unsorted, 
fifth, and sixth. Hudiksvall and the districts south separate practi- 
cally all dimensions of pine and some dimensions of spruce into six 
grades. 

Sundsvall is particularh' noted for the long average length of its 
production, and lumber from this district is especially in demand by 
the British colonial markets, such as vSouth Africa and Australia. 
The other districts have specialized in high-grade stock for joinery 
and the better class of construction material. 

The following figures show the percentages of pine and spruce in the 
different grades for the Sundsvall sliipping district: Unsorted, 88 per 
cent; fifth grade, 7 per cent; sixth grade, 5 per cent. For pine planks 
the grading is about as folloAVs: First grade, 3 per cent; second grade, 
7 per cent; third grade, 40 per cent; fourth grade, 35 per cent; fifth 
and sixth grades, 1.5 per cent. The percentages of spruce planks in 
the dift'erent grades is as follows: First grade, 2 per cent; second 
grade, 16 per cent; third grade, 42 per cent: fourth grade, 14 per cent; 
fifth and sixth grades, 26 per cent. The percentages for the fifth and 
sixth grades var}^ a good deal and can not be considered as average. 

Spruce lumber from shipping points south of Sundsvall is traded 
about as follows: Unsorted, 85 per cent; fifth and sixth grades, 15 
per cent. Some dimensions of spruce may be sei)arated into six 
different grades in the same way as pine, but the grades commonly 
used for spruce lumber are unsorted, fifth, and sixth. 

The table following shows the average percentage of different kinds 
of pine lumber in each of the first four grades in some of the largest 
mills of southern Norrland. For grades V and VI no average figure 
can be given, but in most cases the proportion of V and VI seems to 
be about 15 to 20 per cent of the total production. The percentages 
in the table are calculated on the basis of the total quantity in the 
first four grades. 



Kinds of lumber. 


I grade. ■ II grade. Ill grade. 


IV grade. 


Planks 




Per cent. Percent. 
2 15 
■1 , 18 
7 14 
6 13 


Per cent. 
12 
38 
32 

36 


Per cent. 
41 


Battens 




40 


Boards 




47 


Narrow boards 




45 









Scantlings are usually divided only into unsorted, fifth, and sixth 
grades. 

The logs in the southern part of the lower-gulf region give a larger 
percentage of the upper grades than those found in many other parts 
of vSweden. ^11 though the lumber exporters in other parts of Sweden, 
who are able to ship the year round, may obtain better prices during 
the winter months than are obtained for lumber from the lower gulf, 



196 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

this is no indication of better quality but is due to the ability to fur- 
nish lumber when the lower-gulf shipping ports are closed by ice. \ 

Navigation opens about the middle of April and closes at the end 
of December or the beginning of January. ^ 

STOCKHOLM-MALMO REGION, 

The Stockholm-Malmo region comprises all the shipping dis- 
tricts south of 60° north latitude and takes in the southeastern coast 
and the southern coast up to and including the city of Malmo. A 
large number of small mills are scattered in this territory and, out- 
side of a few larger mills, there are no standard operations. While 
excellent timber is found in the northern parts of this region, north 
and south of Stockholm, the other parts of southeastern and southern 
Sweden are not known for good quality. With the exception men- 
tioned, the lumber shipped from this district probably represents the 
poorest quality in Sweeten. 

The manufacturing of the lumber also is usually defective, and 
these shipments can not be considered as representative of Swedish 
lumber for export. The lumber is often carelessly cut, usually on 
circular saws, which gives it a rough sm-face. 

Owing to the poor floating facilities in this region, the logs have 
not generally been in contact vnth. water, and the wood is often very 
hard on this account, particularly timber originating in the highlands 
of Smaland. Blue lumber constitutes a large percentage of these 
shipments, owin^ to defective methods of seasoning, and in many 
ports lumber is shipped that has not been edged. 

The lumber is usually graded into unsorted, fifth, and sixth grades, 
but, as the lumber export business is mainly in the hands of export 
merchants, there are no established grading rules. A large part of 
the output is sold locally or to the box factories and planing mills, 
especially on the west coast of Sweden. Most of the lumber shipped 
from southeastern Sweden is about 14 feet to 15 feet in length. Pine 
lumber is the predominating factor in the export trade. 

On the Island of Gotland similar conditions prevail. The quality 
of the lumber shipped is rather good and it is of solid texture, although 
very knotty. The wood is very hard, owing to the fact that it has 
not been floated. For a long time Brazil was a favorable market, 
but now the bulk of the lumber shipped from this island goes to 
Germany. 

Although the shipments from the Stockholm-Malmo region usually 
are defective, some mills produce very satisfactory lumber. Espe- 
cially in the Norrkoping district, several first-class mills may be found 
and larger dimensions may often be obtained here than from other 
parts of Sweden, some of the logs being cut on State forest land. 

The prices obtained for lumber from southeastern Sweden under 
normal conditions, during the season when all shipping districts in 
Sweden are open to navigation, are considerably below the prices 
obtained in otner districts. Exceptions must be made for standard 
shipments from this district. 

During late years navigation has usually been open the year round, 
although some ports may be closed for a few weeks. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 87,— ANOTHER METHOD OF PILING. 




FIG. 88.— PILING OF STAVES. 



Special Agents Series No. 195 




- O 
q: _j 

UJ LLi 



< < 

if) < 



O o 
o 
o 



Q- O 



en CL 
O 

6 LL 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 197 
WEST-COAST REGION. 

The west-coast region extends from Malmo up to the Norwegian 
boundary on the west coast. In this region Goteborg is practically 
theonly port of any importance. From the smaller ports is shipped 
lumber from the interior districts of southern Sweden, similar in 
character to that from the east coast, while Goteborg shipments 
represent mainly the lumber products of the districts of Vermland, 
with some from Dalecarlia. Some of this lumber is shipped direct 
from mills on Lake Wenner through the canal. Goteborg shipments 
are considered among the best in Sweden and the export lumber 
business is in the hands of old, well-established firms. 

The character of the lumber shipped via Goteborg is similar to that 
shipped from the south Norrland ports. The great advantage of this 
port is that it is open the year round, and the prices obtained, espe- 
cially during the winter months, are considerably higher than those 
obtained from the Norrland ports during the summer months. 

For a good production in Vermland, the proportion of the first four 
grades of pine and spruce would be about as follows: First grade, 
5 per cent; second grade, 20 per cent; third grade, 55 per cent; fourth 
grade, 20 per cent. Of the fifth and sixth grades, the quantity is 
about 10 to 15 per cent of the total production. 

Goteborg is in an especially advantageous position in regard to 
shipping because many direct liners run from this port to the principal 
European countries and also to the principal markets outside of 
Europe. This is also the best port on the west coast. 

This district is one of the main centers for exports of joinery, 
planed stock, and box shooks. 

DETAILED CONSIDERATION OF PRINCIPAL MARKETS.^ 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

The United Kingdom is the most important of all markets for 
Swedish lumber. Almost any dimension of pine and spruce, both 
rough and dressed, finds a market there. Pme is generally preferred 
in England and Ireland, while more spruce is shipped to Scotland. 

The British market is very conservative and often specifies wide 
stock of lumber when narrower dimensions would serve the same pur- 
pose. Shipments from the northern Provinces of Norrland are 
especially in favor in the United Kmgdom on accomit of the reddish 
color. British shipyards and other plants sometimes call for heart 
specifications, but the demand can not be satisfied from Sweden in 
spite of the hirfi prices offered. 

"Torrac" of pine and spruce, or lumber sawn from dead trees with 
only the heartwood left, the sapwood having decayed, is shipped in 
considerable quantities and used extensively for construction pur- 
poses, especially when the lumber is to come into contact with water. 
This torrac lumber, however, is to be considered low-grade material. 

It is almost impossible to give a detailed statement in regard to 
the different dimensions required by this market, as nearly any 
dimension can be sold m the United Kingdom. The following 

1 Various tables in the appendix show the quantities of lumber shipped to each country. The descrip- 
tion of the requirements of the principal markets in this section is based on pre-war conditions. 



I 



198 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND T.TTMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

dimensions, however, are usually called for, in both pine and spruce: 
3 by 11, 9, 7, 6,4:1, and 4 inches; 2h by 7 and 6 inches; and 2 by 7, 6, 
5,4.^, 4, and 3 inches. Pine and spruce boards in various widths and 
in thicknesses of H, 1}, and 1 inch are also in demand. Scotland 
demands principally spruce lumber, usually in the followmg dimen- 
sions: 3 by 9, 8, and 7 mches; 2^ by 8, 6^, and 6 inches; and 2 by 7, 6, 
oi, 5, 4J, and 4 inches, Ireland often specifies wide boards, up to 
11 inches. 

The United Kmgdom may be termed a market for planks. Battens 
and boards are taken in comparatively small quantities. It is the 
principal market for Swedish planed stock, taking about 50 per cent 
of the total Swedish output for export of this kmd of lumber. The 
planed boards are taken in almost any sizes. This market also re- 
quires 7-mch weatherboards, which are xiot exported elsewhere except 
to Australia, To the United Kingdom is shipped more than 50 per 
cent of Sweden's output for export of staves, box shocks, and split 
wood. It also is one of the most important markets for logs and 
timber and takes practically the entire quantities exported from 
Sweden of pit props and ties. 

The following are typical specifications for the London and the 
Scottish markets: 



LONDON. 

Pine, unsorted: M feet. 

4 by 8 inches 10 

4 by 7 inches 10 

3 by 9 inches 99 

3 by 8 inches 50 

3 by 7 inches 30 

3 by 5 inches 10 

21 by 8 inches 10 

2i by 7 inches 198 

2^ by 5 inches 10 

2 bv 11 inches 2 

2 by 9 inches 20 

2 by 8 inches 20 

2 by 6 inches 40 

2 by 5 inches 50 

2 by 4^ inches 228 

2 by 4 inches 139 

1 by 7 inches 99 

fby5Hnches 20 

f by 5 inches 50 

Total •- 1,095 



SCOTLAND. 

Pine, unsorted: Mfeet. 

3 by 11 inches 20 

3 by 9 inches 40 

3 bv 7 inches 20 

2i by 7 inches 50 

2^ by Clinches 30 

2iby6lnches 20 

2 by 6 inches 20 

2 by 4 inches 30 

Spruce, unsorted: 

3 by 9 inches 50 

3 by 7 inches 30 

2i by 7 inches 149 

2| by 6i inches 198 

2 by 7 inches 20 

2^ by 6 inches 198 

2 by 6 inches 154 

2 by 4 inches 50 

Total 1,079 



FRANCE, 



Next to the British the Frencli market is normally the most im- 
portant for Swedish lumber and it was mcreasmg m importance 
during the years before the war. Both pme and spruce are taken, 
and spruce from the Hernosand and Sundsvall districts is much in 
demand. 

France takes important quantities of planks and battens and nar- 
row boards, but only limited quantities of wide boards. The lumber 
is usually trimmed to metric feet, Durhig the last 25 years the 
heavy duty imposed upon planed lumber imported into France has 
prevented the Swedish exportation of such stock to this market. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 199 

The lumber taken from Sweden represents a better quality than that 
imported from Finland. Swedish lumber is used iii France mamly 
for jomery and better-grade construction. The competition from 
Russian ports, particularly from Archangel, was very keen before 
the war, but Swedish shippers had a considerable advantage in 
lower freight rates. 

Some of the principal dimensions taken in northern France and in 
southern France are as follows : 



Northern France. 


Southern France. 


Spruce: 3 by 9 inches. 
Pine: 

2J by 7 inches. 

2i by OJ inches. 

2i by 6 inches. 
Pine and spruce: 

1* by 4J inches. 

l| by 4j inches. 

1 by 4J inches. 

1 by 4'inches. 


Pineo: 

3 by 8 inches. 
3 by 7 inches. 
2 by 8 inches. 
IJ by 4.i inches. 
IJ by 4 inches. 
1} by 44 inches, 
i; by 4'inches. 



« There is also a small amount of spruce in the same dimensions. 

Three by nine inch spruce planks are in great demand in France 
and are graded in a special way. Both pine and spruce boards are 
taken xmsorted. The French market also takes some staves, box 
shooks, and small timber. 

A typical specification for France is as follows: 



Spruce: M feet. 

First grade — 3 by 9 inches 30 

Second grade — 3 by 9 inches. . 99 

Third grade— 3 by 9 inches 198 

Fourth grade^ — 3 by 9 inches.. 99 

Fifth grade — 2?f by 7 inches. . . 594 
Pine: 

Unsorted — 

2i by 7 inches 594 

I i by 4h inches 40 

IJ by 4 inches 10 

l| by 9 inches 50 

1 bv 9 inches. 50 



Pine — Continued. 

Unsorted — M feet. 

li by 4J inches 30 

1 by 5 inches 99 

lby4nnches 238 

1 by 4 inches 198 

3 by 9 inches 198 

2.V by 7 inches 198 

Fifth grade — 

2^ by 7 inches 594 

3,319 



GERMANY. 



Germany is close to several of the most important producing 
countries in Europe, and this fact, together with its o^vn extensive 
forest resources, makes it possible for German lumber dealers to make 
a good selection of lumber from the most suitable sources. 

In the German market Swedish lumber, therefore, meets keen 
competition with native German, Finnish, Russian, and Austrian 
lumber. The market for Swedish lumber is thus somewhat limited 
and is not nearly so important as the French and British markets. 
The Danish market, though it serves a population of only about 
3,000,000, is nearly as important for Swedish lumber as the German 
market. The demand for Swedish lumber in Germany is not so 
stable as in the United Kingdom and France. 

Germany takes principally spruce lumber, mainly battens and 
narrow boards, together with ver\^ small quantities of planks. The 



200 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Rhine district is one of the best markets for Swedish spruce, but the 
Rhine importers do not generally buy the spruce north of the district 
of Sundsvall. The lumber is usually imported via Dutch ports and 
taken on barges up the Rhine. As the Netherlands figure in Swedish 
statistics as the importer of this stock, it is not possible to find out 
the exact q^uantities shipped in this way to Germany. The dimen- 
sions most in demand (chiefly spruce lumber) are 2h by 7, 6, 5i, and 
5 (inches and 2 by 7, 6, 5|, and 5 inches. 

The Bremen market calls for large quantities of 2 i by 6 inch spruce, 
part of which is shipped to Saxony. This particular dimension is 
consumed mainly by the German planing-mill industry in resawing 
the battens into boards, whereby a saving in raw material may be 
effected. Spruce boards are taken chiefly in the following dimen- 
sions: 1 by 5, li by 5, li by 5 J, 1^ by 6, and 1| by 7 inches, and pine 
boards in sizes from 4 to 9 inches wide. 

This pine stock is taken chiefly from the lower-gulf district and 
usually in the upper grades. Unsorted boards and narrow boards 
are generally bought from the other shipping districts in Norrland. 
Important quantities of lumber are also taken from southern Sweden. 
In certain markets in northern Germany, fifth-quality boards in 
various widths are taken. A specialty in the German market is the 
so-called ''schaalbretter, " which are waney sap boards used for 
packing material and boxes. The thicknesses are usually five-eighths 
and three-quarters of an inch and the widths 3 to 7 inches. The 
schaalbretter usually contain 20 to 30 per cent of short lengths, 6 to 
8 feet, and the only requirement in regard to wane is that the saw 
must touch all four sides of the piece. 

The German importers frequently specify odd dimensions, such as 
seven-eighths, nine-eighths, 2f inch thicknesses, where they formerly 
ordered 1 to 1| inches, 3 inches, etc. Undoubtedly in many cases 
these dimensions are sold as holding a larger measure than they actu- 
ally do. The Swedes do not look with satisfaction upon having their 
lumber sold in this way, aiid some mills even refuse to brand such 
stock. In most of these cases the Germans may use the odd dimen- 
sions for planing purposes, and by using modern planers, often of 
Norwegian or Swedish construction, they may be able to dress these 
rough dimensions down to the required sizes, where formerly greater 
thicknesses would be required. Such odd dimensions, however, always 
command extra prices. 

Planed lumber does not find a good market in Germany, partly on 
account of the tariff and partly because the German planing-mill 
industry is highly developed. 

Germany imports some Swedish staves and box shooks, and con- 
siderable quantities of small timber and telegraph and telephone 
poles. 

DENMARK. 

Denmark affords an important market for Swedish lumber. The 
Danish market does not require such long lengths of lumber as, for 
instance, British colonial markets. The Danish market is supplied 
mainly by the mifls in southern Sweden, where short stock pre- 
dominates. The principal requirement in Denmark is to receive the 
lumber in a bright condition, and the Swedish shippei-s are particu- 
larly careful not to ship blue lumber to this market, as heavy claims 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 201 

would be certain to ensue. Pine lumber is generally preferred; of 
the total quantities of lumber exported to Denmark from Sweden, 
less than one-third is spruce lumber. Denmark is decidedly a mar- 
ket for boards, which constitute about 90 per cent of the lumber 
imported from Sweden. 

The principal dimensions taken by the Danish market, are as fol- 
lows: 7 by 1^, li, 1, and | inch; 6 by l^, 11, 1, and f inch; and 5 by 
1^, 11, 1, and I inch; H by 5 inches and IJ by 6 inches are in par- 
ticular demand, and it is sometimes difficult in Sweden to supply the 
demand for this stock. The boards are often taken of the upper 
grades, and the prices paid for this stock are very satisfactory. Lim- 
ited quantities of pine planks and battens, particularly 2^ by 5' inches, 
2| by 5 inches, and 2 by 5 inches, are called for. 

Oi cull and low-grade lumber the following dimensions are usually 
shipped: 1 by 5^, 5, 4^, and 4 inches; | by 5^, 5, 4|, and 4 inches; 
and f by 5^, 5, 4^, and 4 inches. Schaalbretter are also in demand 
in this market. 

Next to the United Kingdom, Denmark is the largest market for 
Swedish planed lumber, which is usually shipped in the unsorted 
grade. The following sizes are the most in demand: IJ by 5, 6, and 
7 inches and 1 by 5, 6, and 7 inches. Pine and spnice are taken in 
about equal quantities. 

Denmark also imports considerable quantities of split wood and 
staves, timber, props, and ties, and large quantities oi small timber 
and telegraph and telephone poles. 

The following specification is an example of a Danish shipment 
calling for a large number of items and very small quantities of each: 

M feet. 

2^ by 12 inch first and second grade pine 2 

2| by 11 inch first and second gi'ade pine 2 

2| by 10 inch first and second grade pine 2 

2^ by 9 inch first and second grade pine 2 

2 by 12 inch first and second grade pine 2 

2 by 11 inch first and second gi'ade pine 2 

2 by 10 inch first and second grade pine 4 

2 by 8 inch second grade pine 10 

2 by 7 inch second grade pine 20 

I2 by 8 inch second grade pine 10 

l| by 7 inch second grade pine 10 

1\ by 12 inch first and second grade pim; 2 

1\ by 11 inch first and second grade pine 2 

1^ by 10 inch first and second grade pine 2 

1^ by 9 inch first and second grade pine 4 

ll by 8 inch third grade pine 10 

1 by 9 inch third grade pine 10 

l\ by 7 inch first grade pine 10 

1^ by 7 inch second grade pine 10 

Ij by 6 inch first grade pine 10 

l| by 6 inch second grade pine 10 

1 by 7 inch first grade pine. 10 

1 by 7 inch second grade pine 10 

1 by 6 inch third grade pine 30 

1\ Dy 8 inch unsorted grade 20 

206 
NETHERLANDS. 

For hundreds of yeai"s the Netherlands has been one of the prin- 
cipal markets for Swedish lumber. Spruce is most in demand, partly 
for consumption in the country itself and partly for reexport to Ger- 



202 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

many. Shipments of spruce lumber constitute about 80 to 85 per 
cent of the entire quantity exported to this market, and lumber of all 
thicknesses up to 3 inches, and in widths from 5 inches up to and 
including 1 1 inches, is in demand. This market takes mainly battens 
and boards. 

Of the various dimensions of battens and boards of pine and spruce, 
the following are most in demand : 3 by 5, 6, 6-^-, 7, and 8 inches ; 2^ 
by 5, 6, 6^, 7, and 8 inches; 2 by 5, 6, 6^, 7, and 8 inches; H by 5, 6, 
6^, 7, and 8 inches; 1| by 5, 6, 6|, 7, and 8 inches; 1 by 5, 6, 6^, 7, 
and 8 inches. 

About 30 per cent of the total shipments to the Netherlands are 
made up of planed lumber, almost all spruce, in the usual standard 
sizes, such as 1|, 1, seven-eighths, and three-fourths inch thicknesses, 
and chiefly 5 and 8 inch widths. Some widths of 7, 6^, and 6 inches 
also are taken. Either the planed lumber is shipped in the unsorted 
grade or the unsorted grade may be sorted into, for instance, two 
grades (first and second), with 50 per cent of the total quantity in 
each grade, according to special instructions in each case. 

During late years, the Netherlands has come into the market for 
several odd dimensions of rough lumber, such as If, 2f, 3f, 4|, and 
5f inches, etc. This stock may be used for the same purposes as 
in Germany. Both German and Dutch importers are known to be 
very technical regarding claims ; they expect the lumber to have the 
exact dimensions specified. 

The Netherlands also imports some quantities of split wood, staves, 
and similar stock and takes considerable quantities of small timber. 

BELGIUM. 

Before the war most of Belgium's imports consisted of narrow 
boards of pine and spruce, chiefly from the lower-gulf district. Pine 
lumber is preferred. Planed lumber is not imported and only limited 
quantities of battens and planks, as Swedish 'lumber was generally 
considered of too high quality for the Belgian requirements. The 
industries in that country used large quantities oi low-grade stock 
for packing cases, and cheap lumber for this purpose was taken from 
Russia and Finland. Schaalbretter of the same specification as those 
taken by Germany, and discolored and cull lumber were also in 
demand. The boards taken from Sweden were generally in thick- 
nesses of 1 inch and five-eighths of an inch, and in widths of 4, 4-|-, 
and 5 inches. The lumber for Belgium is trimmed to metric feet. 
Considerable quantities of staves and box shooks are imported. 

Controversies between the shippers and the Belgian importers were 
frequent before the war, resultmg from claims in regard to quality 
made by the importers. The prices obtained in this market for 
Swedish lumber were often less satisfactory than those obtained in 
other markets in Europe. 

SPAIN AND CANARY ISLANDS. 

While the north Spanish ports take mostly pine, the Mediterranean 
ports call chiefly for spruce. It is of main importance to ship the 
lumber absolutely bright to this market, as it is not painted when 
used for flooring, and blue lumber is practically worthless for this 
purpose. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 203 

Formerly in southern Spain lengths of 14 feet were chiefly in de- 
mand. This custom, however, is gradually disappearing, and the 
tendency is to take the usual lengths produced by the Swedish 
exporters. The specifications for this market vary but slightly from 
one year to another. Among the principal standard dimensions are 
4 by 9 inches, 3 by 11 inches, 3 by 9 inches, 3 by 8 inches, 3 by 7 
inches, 2^ by 7 inches, 2^ by 4 inches, 2 by 9 inches, 2 by 8 inches, 
and 2 by 4 inches. Four, six, and eight inch boards, in thicknesses 
of H, 1^, and 1 inch are generally called for, especially in northern 
Spain. For 1 by 4 inch pine and spruce the Swedish exporters can 
hardly satisfv the demand. Many odd dimensions are often called 
for. 

Spain does not import planed lumber on account of the heavy duty 
imposed on such stock. It is mainly a plank market. Limited 
quantities of small timber are also imported. The Canary Islands, 
which belong to Spain, afford a good market for sawn box shocks, 
particularly those from the western coast of Sweden. 

NORWAY. 

The barren west coastal districts of Norway take considerable 
quantities of lumber from Sweden. Large quantities of Swedish 
lumber are also exported to Norway for reexportation, cither rough 
or manufactured mto planmg-mill products, box sliooks, etc. Most 
of the Swedish lumber is taken in battens and planks and small quan- 
tities of boards. 

Cull lumber, especially in the 3 by 9 inch dimension, for construc- 
tion purposes, has been extensively called for during recent years. 
Norway also imports large quantities of planed lumber, part of which 
is destined for reexportation. The reexportation from Norwaj'- of 
Swedish lumber will be treated in the Norwegian report. 

Norway imports from Sweden considerable quantities of staves, 
box shocks, split wood, logs, small timber, props, and pulp wood, 
part of which is for reexportation. 

OTHER EUROPEAN MARKETS. 

To Portugal almost nothing but pine battens and planks from 8 
inches and up in width are exported. A specialty in the Portuguese 
market is 10-inch planks, which can be sold in very few markets 
besides Portugal and the United Kingdom. 

In Italy the Swedish lumber comes into keen competition with 
lumber from Austria and other southeastern European countries. 
The market is not important and is limited chiefly to pine planks, 
usually 3 by 9 inches. There is also a limited call for pine battens 
2 by 4 inches and 2 by 5 inches, and pine boards If by 6 inches, | by 
6 inches, 1| by 9 inches, 1^ by 4^ inches, and 1^ by 6 inches. This 
market also takes small quantities of timber. 

Greece is a rather unimportant market. It takes limited quantities 
of pine boards and battens of 1 by 5 and 6 inches, and 2 by 5 and 6 
inches, besides very small quantities of planed narrow pine boards 
and small timber. 

Turkey takes some quantities of planed pine lumber of 5 and 5J 

inch stock, small quantities of rough lumber, and small timber. This 

. market grew rapidly with the establishment of direct steamship lines. 



204 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 











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SWEDISH LUMBEE JNDUSTEY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 205 

Gibraltar, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands take small quantities of 
lumber, mainly pine stock, and limited shipments of small timber 
have been made to Bulgaria. 

ASIA. 

To Asia Sweden has exported only small quantities of lumber. 
Persia, British India, and the Dutch East Indies have imported some 
quantities of planed and sawn box shooks from the west coast of 
Sweden. Asiatic Turkey (included under Turkey in the statistics in 
the appendix) is practically the only Asiatic market of any impor- 
tance, importing box shooks, planks, battens, and planed and rough 
boards of pine, besides small timber. 

NORTH AFRICA. 

Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco have increased very rapidly in im- 

Sortance durmg the last 10 years. They take mostly pine in such 
imensions as 3 by 9 inches, 2 by 4| inches, H by 6 inches, and 1 J by 
4^ inches rough. Of planed lumber, pine is preferred, and is usually 
taken in the following dimensions: H by 4-|- inches, 1^ by 5 inches, 
1 by 4^ inches, and 1 by 5 inches. 

The demand for Swedish lumber in Egypt has varied a great deal 
from one year to another, as this market to great extent is supplied 
from Austria and Rumania. 

Pine lumber is most in demand and is imported in sizes such as 
4 by 9, 3 by 9, 2 by 9, 2 by 8, 2h by 7, 2 by 6, 2 by ^, 2 by 4, 1^ by 8, 
and 1^ by 4 J inches. Small quantities of narrow planed pine boards 
are also taken. The exportation from Sweden to Egypt of small 
square timber has been a large item. As the small timbers are often 
cut from young stands, the exportation of this stock has been vigor- 
ously opposed oy advocators of rational forestry in Sweden, and the 
exportation of small square timber to Egypt declined about 65 per 
cent during the last 10 years before the war. It will very likely be 
materially reduced in the years to come on account of the stringent 
laws concerning the cutting of immature stands in Sweden. 

The following is a typical specification for Egypt, consisting entirely 
of unsorted-grade pine : 



M feet. 

4 by 9 inches 99 

3 by 9 inches • 297 

2^ by 9 inches 198 

2 by 9 inches 495 

1^ by 9 inches 396 

l| by 9 inches 297 

1 by 9 inches 198 

f by 9 inches 40 

i by 9 inches 20 

2 by 8 inches 149 



M feet. 

li by 8 inches 79 

1\ by 8 inches 79 

1 by 8 inches 79 

2J by 7 inches 158 

2 by 6 inches 495 

2 by 4 J inches 396 

2 by 4 inches 59 

1 J by 4J inches 149 

3, 683 



BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA. 



Among the markets outside of Europe, British South Africa is the 
most important. While one after the other of the European coun- 
tries have stopped the importation of planed lumber by imposing 
heavy customs duties on such stock, the Swedish lumber exporters 



206 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

have succeeded in maintaining their j)laning mill industry by finding 
new markets, particularly in the British colonies. 

Of rough lumber, pine planks 3 by 9 inches, in third, fourth, and 
fifth grades are mostly shipped. During late years, however, the 
South African importers have discovered that scantlings and battens 
can be obtained more cheaply by ordering these dimensions from 
Sweden than by resawing them in South Africa from imported planks. 
Therefore, dimensions such as 2 by 3, 3 by 3, 3 by 4, 3 oy 4^, 3 by 5, 
and 3 by 6 inches are now called for in this market, besides small 
quantities of 2 by 6 and 2 by 5 inches. The South African market 
takes pine lumber almost exclusively. 

In planed lumber (pine and some spruce) the specifications usually 
call for Ij, 1, and f inch by 6^ inches; 5 by 1| and 4§ by IJ incJti 
pine is in demand, besides a few other sizes. The planed lumber is 
graded into "colonial first," which is a mixture of first and second 
grades of planed stock, and "colonial third." About 30 per cent of 
the total imports to this market consist of planed stock. 

The South African market demands long lengths. Lumber less 
than 10 feet long is seldom shipped, and specifications often call for 
16 feet and longer, usually specif3dng a certain quantity of each 
dimension in lengths of 20 feet and up. Limited quantities of box 
shooks are also imported. 

The lumber shipped to South Africa and other African countries 
must be specially well seasoned. For this extra care, the Swedish 
lumber exporters obtain about $2.50 to S3 per 1,000 feet above the 
prices usually charged for the same dimensions in European markets. 

A typical railroad specification for South Africa is as follows. : 

M feet. 

4 by 11 inch pine, third grade 6 

3 by 11 inch pine, third grade 67 

4 by 9 inch pine, third grade 28 

3 by 9 inch pine, second grade 1, 172 

3 by 9 inch pine, third grade 1 , 841 

l^by 6^inch, colonial first, tongued 

and grooved .' 149 Total 4, 051 

OTHER MARKETS OF AFRICA. 

Portuguese East Africa and French West Africa take both planed 
and rough lumber, mostly pine, in about the same sizes as British 
South Africa. 

Other sections of Africa occasionally take small quantities of 
Swedish lumber, but they are not considered established markets for 
this product, as the exportation is dependent upon casual chances 
of shipping space, etc., and not on the result of a systematic exploita- 
tion of these fields by Swedish lumber exporters or their agents. 

AUSTRALIA. 

Australia is a very important market for Swedish lumber, both 
planed and rough, and the Australian business increased materially 
during the last decade before the war in spite of the distance of 
about 13,000 miles from Sweden. The specifications are similar to 
those of South Africa, but Australia takes mostly planed lumber. In 
planed lumber, spruce is chiefly in demand, wHile the rough lumber 



M feet. 
1 byG^inch, colonial first, tongued 

and grooved 556 

I by 6i inch, colonial first 85 

I by 6"^ inch, tongued, grooved, 

and center beaded 147 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 207 

consists almost exclusively of piiie stock. The rough lumber is 
usually imported in the f ollowing^sizes : 4 by 9, 3 by 11, 3 by 9, 
2^ by 7, and 2^ by 6^ inches. While South Africa generally takes 
third and lower grades of rough lumber, Australia prefers first, 
second, and third grades, shipped in large quantities. Of planed 
lumber the following sizes are shipped in the largest quantities : 6 and 
6^ inches in width and one-half, five-eighths, three-fourths, 1, 1^, 
and 1^ inches in thickness. The planed lumber is classified into 
colonial first and colonial third grades. Australia also takes 7-inch 
weather boards, which arc shipped in the unsorted grade, and con- 
siderable quantities of sawn box shooks. 

THE AMERICAS. 

Although South America is not an important market for Swedish 
lumber, the trade has been steadily growing with the direct steamship 
lines established a few 3^ears before the war. Brazil formerly afforded 
a good market for Swedish lumber, to a large extent exported from 
the Island of Gotland, where 3 by 9 inch lumber, 14 feet long, was the 
principal dimension shipped. At present most of the lumber for South 
America is shipped from the west coast of Sweden. Brazil takes 
chiefly pine and spruce planks. 

The Argentine market has been developed recently and the prin- 
cipal dimensions shipped to this market from Sweden are 2 by 6, 2 
by 3, 1 by 6, and 1 by 3 inch spruce, and also limited quantities of 
planed lumber in widths from 6 to 8^ inches, i^rgentina also takes 
limited quantities of sawn and planed box shooks. 

Uruguay and a few smaller markets have at times imported limited 
quantities of Swedish lumber. The Swedish exporters managed to 
extend their market even to Chile, but so far only small quantities 
of planed boards have been sliipped on the regular liners. 

North America and Central America do not figure as importers of 
Swedish lumber. 

COMPETING LUMBER-EXPORTING COUNTRIES. 

RUSSIA. 

There has in years past been considerable competition between the 
shippers in the various north European lumber countries. Russia 
particularly has offered keen competition because the quantities of 
lumber exported from that country were much larger than the quan- 
tities exported from Sweden, and both raw material and labor have 
been very cheap in Russia. The Russian lumber from certain sec- 
tions is also considered superior in quality to the average Swedish 
stock. The Swedish lumber exporters, however, do not fear compe- 
tition from exporters in other countries as long as such competition 
is fair and the export policy followed is systematic. Russian sliippers 
have often dumped their stocks on foreign markets at very low prices. 
Many Russian shippers before the war had not sufficient capital to 
enable them to hold their stock when the markets were unable to ab- 
sorb large quantities of lumber, and consignments from Russia to 
I^uropean markets have constituted a large percentage of the quan- 
tities exported from that country. As a whole, the Russian ex- 



208 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



porters are not on a par with the Swedish exporters in regard to 
export methods, and it has often been difficult, therefore, for the 
Swedish exporters to have any clear idea of the policy that would be 
followed during the selling season by the Russian shippers in regard 
to prices, shipments, etc. 

The Russian exporters have usually been able to furnish wider stock 
and longer lengths than the Swedish exporters, but have often failed to 
take advantage of these facts. The following stock list, representa- 
tive for the bettor class of shipments from the Archangel district on 
the White Sea, shows these shippers' ability to furnish wide stock: 



Mfeet. 

3 by 11 inches 6, 930 

3 by 9 inches 5, 940 

1^ by 11 inches 2, 376 

l| bv 10 inches 1, 584 

1 by 11 inches 1, 287 

1 by 9 inches 2, 277 

1 by 8 inches 1, 980 



M feet. 

1 by 7 inches 1, 782 

J by 7 inches 693 

I bv 6 inches 693 

I by 5 inches 693 

i by 3-11 inches 1, 287 



Total 27,522 



The following schedule covering sales made in 1914 to the United 
Kingdom shows the low price level before the war of Russian Wliite 
Sea stocks, which at the time were rated among the best in Europe. 
Prices are for pine f. o. b. Archangel. 



Dimensions. 


First grade. 


Second 
grade. 


Third 
grade. 


Fourth 
grade. 


3 and 11 inches. . . 


Per Mfeet. 
$47.93 
47.93 
40.55 
47.93 
30.72 
34.41 


Per M feci. 
$38. 10 
38.10 
33.18 
39.33 
24.58 
29.49 


Per Mfeet. 
$25.81 
27.04 
24.58 
29.49 
20.89 
22.12 


Per Mfeet. 
$19.66 




23.35 


3 by 9 inches . . . . 


22.12 




19.66 


8 and 7 inch battens. . 


19.04 




17.82 







These prices correspond to the Swedish prices covering shipments 
from the upper gulf, which in quality compare unfavorably with the 
White Sea stocks. The high freight rates from Archangel to the 
United Kingdom— about $4.50 per 1,000 feet, or $1.30 to $1.50 in ex- 
cess of those from Swedish Norrland ports — may account to some 
extent for these low prices. 

The competition from Riga on the Baltic was just as keen, although 
the lumber from this port is not so good as that from the White Sea 
ports. At the same time (1914) the following prices per 1,000 feet 
were obtained for different dimensions and grades of spruce f. o. b. 
Riga: 3 by 9 inches, first and second grades, $28.60; 3 by 11 inches, 
unsorted grade, $26.15; 3 by 9 inches, unsorted grade, $25.56; 3 by 
8 and 7 inches, unsorted grade, $22.18. The freidit rate from Riga 
to the United Kingdom was $2 to $2.10 per 1,000 feet. 

The lack of a strong organization has been a great handicap to the 
Russian exporters. The Swedish exporters tried in vain, before the 
war, to come to an agreement with the Russian exporters similar to 
the one concluded with Finnish exporters. 

The best lumber from Russia is exported from the Petrograd 
shipping district and from the White Sea region in northern Russia, 
but the shipping conditions in Russia are generally not so favorable 
as those in Sweden, The White Sea region is closed by ice duiing 




FIG. 92.— DRY KILN. 




FIG. 93. —GRADING AND TRIMMING LUMBER ON DOCK. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of State IuflsI Laburatur.\ . .Stuikhol. 



FIG. 94.— TRANSPORTING LUMBER FROM PORTABLE MILL IN INTERIOR TO 
RAILROAD STATION, SOUTHERN SWEDEN. 




FIG. 95.— BARGE FOR LOADING LUMBER. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 209 

a part of the year, though recently it has been kept open by ice break- 
ers much longer than in previous years. As the shipping season 
draws to a close, the exporters may resort to price cutting in order 
to be sure to dispose of their stocks. The Swedish exporters, on the 
contrary, may advance the prices too rapidly as soon as the market 
shows signs of improvement, sometimes interrupting negotiations 
of sale. 

FINLAND. 

The Swedish exporters, before the war, had considerable trouble 
with the Fmnish exporters because the latter had been selling their 
lumber at lower prices. Finnish stock is generally somewhat in- 
ferior in quality to the average Swedish products, but Finnish lumber 
of the unsorted grade has often been sold, especially by small mills, 
at prices only slightly in excess of the price for Swedish fifth grade 
(better class of cull lumber). The Finnish exporters had profited 
by this policy in Belgium, Germany, and a few other markets, which 
were inclined to consider price more than quality. A change in 
this policy took place during the war, when the Finnish exporters 
established close cooperation with the Swedish exporters, and many 
of the small mills that formerly were the chief cause of this price 
cutting were taken over by larger concerns in Finland. The more 
favorable shipping conditions in Sweden than in Finland have mate- 
rially helped the Swedish exporters. 

NORWAY. 

Between Norway and Sweden, there has never been any serious 
competition. Norway has developed over-sea markets to a great 
extent on account of its better steamship service, and, furthermore, 
Norway has specialized for years in planed lumber and box shooks 
while Sweden principally exports rough stock. The quantities ex- 

Eorted from Norway are relatively small, and the Norwegian shippers 
ave generally been able to obtain better prices than the Swedish 
shippers on account of their ability to ship during the part of the 
year when most of the Swedish ports are closed to navigation. 

The Norwegians have always exported their lumber intelligently 
and have not dumped any quantities on the market, or otherwise 
caused prices to decline through lack of understanding market con- 
ditions. Close cooperation with the Norwegian shippers, therefore, 
has not been necessary to the Swedish trade, although actually coop- 
eration between the Norwegian and the Swedish exporters' associa- 
tions has existed for some time. 

AUSTRIA AND RUMANIA. 

While the timber in north Europe consists of pine and spruce of 
about the same species as the softwoods of Austria and Rumania, 
the lumber from the latter countries differs widely from the Swedish 
woods in quality and texture. The principal markets for the lumber 
from Austria and Rumania appear to have been near-by countries 
such as the Levant, northern Africa, and other Mediterranean 
countries. Until recently Swedish lumber has not been exported in 
2092°— 21 14 



210 SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

any quantity to these sections of Europe, and only in rare cases has 
lumber from Rumania and Austria entered into direct competition 
with Swedish lumber. There would probably be just as great a 
difference between Swedish and Austrain lumber as there is between 
Swedish lumber and, for instance, southern yellow pine; and the 
Swedes know the comparative values of Austrian lumber and their 
own, and price their stock correspondingly higher. 

CANADA. 

Some spruce from eastern Canada has been exported to the markets 
that ,take Swedish spruce and pine. Although in England, for in- 
stance, this competition has been keenly felt at times, on account of 
the extremely low prices of the Canadian spruce, the relative qualities 
of Swedish lumber, and Canadian spruce are well kno^vn in Europe 
and generally preference is given to Swedish Imnber in spite of its 
higher prices. Swedish exporters sometimes complam of dumping 
practices on the part of Canadian exporters, but this competition has 
not been so keen as to prevent Swedish exporters from disposing of 
their stocks to good advantage. 

In 1914 Canadian spruce was sold at the followmg prices, c. i. f. 
United Kingdom, in competition with Swedish spruce: 3 by 9 inches, 
$26.42 per 1,000 feet; 3 by 8 and 7 inches, $22.12 per 1,000 feet. 

The high freight rates from Canada have handicapped the exporters 
there in placing their stock in Europe. 

UNITED STATES. 

One of the most serious competitors of Sweden in the Imnber trade 
has been the United States. Particularly southern yellow pine, 
known abroad as pitch pine, has been exported in large quantities 
to markets that also take Swedish lumber. Upon a close investiga- 
tion of the character of Swedish lumber and southern yellow pine, 
serious competition would seem unnecessary because southern yel- 
low pine, m the grades usually shipped to the European markets, 
is superior to Swedish pine in almost every respect, and is considered 
so by both Swedish exporters and European importers. Neverthe- 
less, southern yellow pine has often been sold at only slightly higher 
prices, and sometimes at lower prices than Swedish lumber delivered 
in the same markets. Not only southern 3'ellow pine, but also other 
species of American lumber, such as Douglas fir and North Carolma 
pine, have been marketed in the same way. American exporters 
have not realized the limitations of Swedish lumber with regard to 
upper grades, long lengths, wide stock, etc., and the prices at which 
lumber has been sold by Swedish exporters. They have been ad- 
vised by their agents simply that Swedish lumber is sold at such 
and such a price; and knowledge of the price of Swedish lumber 
without information as to grades, sizes, etc., did not offer a guide for 
American exporters in prichig their o^vn stocks. Most of the Amer- 
ican softwood lumber exported to Europe could hardly have been 
supplied from any other country in the world, with the possible 
exception of the west coast of Canada, which is too distant from 
European markets to be able to ship lumber in any quantities. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 211 

The following examples illustrate these conditions as late as 1918: 
A Swedish exporter quoted S59 per 1,000 feet, f. o. b. Swedish port, 
on a shipment of 3 by 9 inch pine planks of unsorted grade to the west 
coast of Africa. The freight rates, from the Swedishport to the port 
of destination were given as $58 per 1,000 feet. The same speci- 
fication was submitted for quotation to an exporter on the Gulf 
Coast of the United States at the same time and the q^uotation 
^ven by this exporter was $30.72 per 1,000 feet, the freight rate 
being $78. This quotation covered southern yellow-pine lumber of 
merchantable grade, and the lumber was offered cut in specified 
lengths, whereas the Swedish exporter guaranteed only 17 feet average 
length for the whole cargo. It is evident that only lack of knowledge 
of market conditions could account for this low quotation by the 
American shipper when practically only two countries outside of the 
United States (Norway and Sweden) could have delivered this stock 
and these two countries maintain the same prices. 

The following prices cover shipments of American pitch pine and 
Douglas fir to the United Kingdom during 1914: Rio Prime deals, 
$30.72, c. i. f. United Kingdom port; Douglas fir, merchantable 
deals, $27.04, c. i. f. United Kingdom port. These prices were only 
slightly above the prices paid in the same markets for Swedish 
planks of unsorted quality. 

The Swedish lumber exporters expect that as the stands of timber 
in the United States decrease and stumpage values rise, adequate 
charges for stumpage will be included in the calculation of the cost 
of production and also that American lumber will be more carefully 
manufactm-ed and the labor charges per 1,000 feet will be higher. 
Then the American shippers will be forced to ask higher prices for 
their lumber for export. There is no doubt that they %vill be able to 
keep their present markets, because most of the importers will be 
willing to pay higher prices for American lumber if the lumber is more 
carefully manufactured. The Swedish exportei's would be inter- 
ested in seeing American softwoods sold at higher prices in Europe, 
because firm prices on American woods would make it easier to 
maintain prices on Swedish woods. 

HANDLING EXPORT SALES. 
MANAGING THE SALES DEPARTMENT OF THE MILL. 

It is fully realized in Sweden that it is one matter to manage a 
mill and another matter to handle the sales end of the business. 
Although these two operations are united in the activities of one 
company, they are of an entirely different nature and each requires a 
highly trained staff. The general manager of the export mill may 
usually take a more direct interest in the selling end of the business 
than in other branches, because the sales department is probably the 
most important and the financial returns of the company are largely 
dependent on the successful carrying out of an export policy. 

In charge of the department of export sales, there is usually a 
highly trained sales manager conversant with conditions in Sweden, 
as well as in the principal importing countries. These sales managers 
have usually passed one or several years in various countries work- 
ing in the offices of agents or importers, and have thus obtained a 



212 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

good knowledge of conditions a])road. This gives them a better 
understanding of how to satisfy their customers and they are better 
able to adjust disputes that may arise between exporters and 
importers. 

On the other hand, agents and importers frequently visit the Swedish 
concerns and the Swedish exporters, and the sales managers repay 
these visits frequently, in some cases even twice a year. 

Although it is generally considered poor policy to effect sales when 
the Swedish luniber exporters visit their customers abroad, never- 
theless many exporters do so. It is contended that these visits 
should have the character of a courtesy extended to the importers to 
ascertain whether the Swedish exporters can improve upon their 
services and that the sales should be left entirely to the agents. 
There is no doubt that this viewpoint is correct in many cases, 
especially when the market is dull, because to have the Swedish 
exporters travel abroad endeavoring to sell their stock would give 
importers the impression that it was necessary for the exporters to 
di&pose of their lumber quickly. 

It has always been a point with the Swedish lumber exporters to 
make their agents and customers understand their capacity, thereby 
avoiding unreasonable demands in regard to specifications and deliv- 
eries. It is easy to see how this mutual knowledge of ccnditions 
has an important bearmg on the relations between exporters and im- 
porters. 

The Swedish exporters have the advantage of bemg located at 
only short distances from the principal markets. It is no greater 
undertaking for Swedish lumber exporters to visit then' customers 
in England or France than it is for a sawmill operator in the State of 
Louisiana to see his customer in the Middle West. 

Only m rare mstances do the same mills engage in both export and 
domestic business, and the sales manager therefore devotes his 
entire time to disposing of the company's lumber products for export. 
Where pulp mills are operated in connection with sawmills, the sales 
maiiager may also be called upon to dispose of the pulp-mill products. 
The sales managers are always in close contact with market condi- 
tions, through frequent visits to foreign countries, by keepiiig in 
close touch with the mill's agents, and most of all through the efforts 
of the lumber exporters' association, which will be discussed in a 
later chapter. 

In advance of each cutting season the sales manager must estimate 
the possible demand for lumber m the various countries in order to 
enable thfe mill to cut accordingly. The mills m Sweden must cut 
large quantities for stock, as the seasonmg process requires considera- 
ble time and it is easily seen, therefore, that it is of the utmost 
importance to cut such dimensions as are easily salable when the 
lumber is ready for shipment. The general manager of a sawmill 
company must coordinate the work of the sales manager in deter- 
mining the demand for lumber in the future and the sizes to be 
cut, with the instructions that are given to the crosscuttere m the 
forests, the log scalers in the pond, and the head sawyer in the mill. 
If any of these men should fail to work intelligently, the success of 
the sawmill business would be endangered. 

The selling season generally starts during the autmnn and early 
winter when the contracts arc made for shipments at first open water 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 213 

(f. o, w.). At other times of the year, minor sales are made, l)iit dur- 
ing the late spring and summer the selling season is generally slack. 
Before each selling season, the sales manager must have made up a 
detailed inventory of the stock on hand and must also make an esti- 
mate of the quantities of lumber that will be ready for shipment 
at the opening of navigation the following season. Through many 
years of practice, the Swedish mills are generally able to give a very 
accurate estimate of the stocks that will be ready for shipment at 
first open water, even six months or more in advance. 

Following is a typical Swedish stock list, showing quantities of 
different sizes of pine and spruce : 



Sizes. 



4 by 9 inches.. 
3 by 11 inches.. 
3 by 9 inches.. . 
3by Sinches.. . 
3by 7inches. . , 
3by einches.. . 
3 by 5J inches.. 
3 by 5 inches.. . 
3 by 4 inclaes . . 
2J by 9 inches . . 
2J by Sinches . 
2j by 7 inches. . 
2J by 6^ inches . 
2i by 6 inches. . 
2§ by 5^ inches . 
2| by 5 inches.. 
2J by 4 inches. . 
2 by 11 inches . 
2 by 9 inches . . . 
2 by Sinches. . . 
2 by 7 inches.. . 
2 by 6 inches. . . 
2 by 5J inches.. 
2 by 5 inches . . . 
2 by 4J inches . . 
2 by 4 inches . . . 
2 by 6 J inches. . 
1§ by Sinches. . 
l| by 44 inches . 
l| by 4"inclies . . 
IJby 11 inches. 



Pine. 



Mfeet. 

139 

743 

2,317 

772 
149 



4 

6 

297 

1,9S0 

1,129 

347 



2 

2 

103 

69 

40 

436 

139 

208 

347 

267 

257 

139 

20 

20 

79 



Spruce. 



Mfeet. 

2 

317 

2,079 

396 

149 

34 

2 

2 



103 

1,782 

594 

792 

10 

50 



63 
,168 
277 
525 
416 
426 



Sizes. 



li by 9 inches.. 
IJ by Sinches . 
IJby 7 inches. 
IJ by 6 inches. 
l| by 5i inches. 
IJ by 4| inches. 
l|by 4lnches.. 
1 by 9 inches . . . 
1 by 8 inches . . . 
1 by 7 inches . . . 
1 by 6^ inches . . 
1 by 6 inches . . 
1 by 5 J inches.. 
1 by 5 inches. . 
1 by 44 inches . . 
1 by 4mches . . 
I by 7 inches. . . 
f by 6 inches . . 
t by 5J inches . . 
I by 5 inches . . 
I by 4§ inches. . 
I by 4 inches . . 
f by 7 inches. . 
I by 6 inches . . 
f by b\ inches . . 
J by '5 inches . . 
f by 4^ inches. . 
f by 4 inches . . 



Total. 



Pine. 



15, 443 



Spruce. 



Mfeet. 


Mfeet. 


218 


85 


248 


99 


218 


317 


69 


99 




30 


50 


10 


99 


10 


149 


38 


188 


61 


297 


287 


119 


50 


396 


347 


198 


188 


386 


327 


693 


356 


911 


634 


4 


4 


24 


4 


16 


2 


99 


20 


168 


30 


396 


59 


4 


2 


26 


8 


30 


6 


119 


50 


139 


69 


168 


129 



12,672 



These stock lists are sent to the companies' agents in different 
countries with special instructions in regard to the prices that the 
exporters expect to obtain and other details in regard to sales. 

It is not customary in Sweden to take orders for larger quantities 
than the mills can handle, and contracts are seldom or never can- 
celed because the mills are unable to make deliveries, except by 
reason of force majeure (act of God) or other causes beyond the 
shipper's control. 

Formerly there was considerable jealousy among the Swedish 
shippers and they often showed unwillingness to assist one another 
in cases of an emergency shortage of stocks. Now, however, these 
conditions have changed, mainly through the work of the Swedish 
Lumber Exporters' Association, The mills can figure, as a rule, on 
being able to obtain lumber from their colleagues on very reasonable 
terms to make up for possible shortages. The Swedish shippers con- 
sider that if any shipper in their district should fail to make delivery 
according to contract, his failure w^ould reflect not only upon himself 
but also, to a certain extent, upon all shippers m the same district; 
and when a district has once obtained a reputation for making unsat- 



214 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

isfactory delivery, the prices obtainable by all exporters iii the 
district will suffer accordingly. Assistance in • filling orders may 
therefore be obtained readily, but the Swedish shippers do not rely 
upon it when they enter mto contracts for the exportation of their 
products. 

It may happen that the exporters find themselves unable, for one 
reason or another, to ship according to specifications. In such cases 
the exporters always wire the importers or agents to arrange for the 
necessary substitute dimensions to be shipped, but such changes are 
never made by reliable exporters without the consent of the importers. 

EXPORT SELLING METHODS. 

The sale of Swedish lumber for export may be effected in the fol- 
lowing ways : 

(1) Selling through a foreign agent on a commission basis. 

(2) Selling through a domestic agent on a commission basis. 

(3) Selling through own organization abroad. 

(4) Selling outright to foreign agent. 

(5) Selling outright to domestic export merchant. 

(6) Selling outright to other mills. 

(7) Exporting lumber to own organization abroad, which distributes lumber to 

wholesalers. 

(8) Selling direct to importers abroad. 

(9) Consigning lumber to foreign markets. 

In this report the following terms will be used: Agent, meaning a 
representative of the mill, operating on a commission basis, and 
exi^ort merchant, a merchant buying outright on his own account 
from the mills and selling the lumber to customers abroad, either 
through agents or direct. 

(1) Selling through a foreign agent. — This method is used by most 
Swedish mills in disposing of their lumber to foreign markets. The 
mills maintain one or several agents in foreign countries and most of 
these connections have been established for a number of years. The 
agents usually are given the sole right to handle the mill products in a 
given territory — in a part of a country, a whole country, or several 
countries. In many cases these agents are Scandinavians, who are 
generally preferred, because they usually have a better understanding 
of conditions in Sweden, in addition to their knowledge of the terri- 
tory abroad where they operate. 

These agents may have subagents in different places, but the ex- 
porters are not concerned with these subagents, who are compensated 
by the mill's representatives and operate on a commission basis, 
usually of 1 per cent. It would be preferable, no doubt, not to em- 
ploy An agent representing other Swedish exporters in the same mar- 
kets. This is not always possible, however, because the advantage 
to a mill of having an agent with a large clientele is too apparent to 
warrant such conditions. The markets for Swedish lumber are so 
extensive that agents representing several Swedish mills usually are 
able to dispose of their stocks without hampering the business of any 
one of the exporters whom they represent. 

The duty of the agent is, in the first place, to sell the stock, but 
merely to sell would not be satisfactory to the Swedish exporters, 
who are very exacting in their requirements. The agent must en- 
deavor to dispose of his stock in such a way as to satisfy the export- 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 215 

ers. Otherwise it would be easy for an agent to pick out of each 
list the stock most readily salable in his territory and to leave the 
remainder to other agents. If this were done, the mills might find 
themselves with a large percentage of less desirable stock on hand 
at the end of each shipping season. Moreover, if the agents were 
not required to assist the mills in other ways than simply selling any 
stock that they might have a chance to dispose of with little effort, 
the mills, doubtless, w^ould be able to handle their sales to better ad- 
vantage themselves, without the assistance of intermediaries. The 
mills have found, however, that the services of an agent are generally 
advisable, because considerable adjustment is required in regard to 
both the specifications and the prices before a sale is made. 

To understand the important assistance that the agents render to 
the exporters, it must oe considered that the Swedish exporters 
spread over a large field and that they must endeavor to distribute 
their stocks in such a way that they will be as complete as possible 
in all markets where they sell. 

It has been shown that the Swedish lumbermen cut their lumber 
so as to obtain the most economical result and that due regard is 
paid to the saving of raw^ material in sawing the logs. Furthermore, 
the logs are too small to yield any large quantities of wide stock or 
long lengths, and it is therefore apparent that good judgement must 
be shown in disposing of dimensions of which there is a limited sup- 
ply. In regard to odd sizes, excess quantity of any one dimension, 
etc., considerable adjustment and discussion are always necessaiy 
before a sale can be effected. Evidently an agent in close touch 
with the importers can make a satisfactory arrangement more easily 
than the exporters, who have to take up these matters by corre- 
spondence or by wire. Right in this connection the agents perform 
their most valuable services. For instance, if an odd size of one 
grade is wanted, the agent must endeavor, in the first place, to ob- 
tain an extra price for this dimension and also to have the importer 
take other grades of the same dimensions, because otherwise the 
remainder of such odd stock would usually be a dead loss to the 
exporters, as it could not find another market readily. 

If the mill's products are handled by several agents in different 
countries, it is of great importance to have each agent dispose of 
such stock as command higher prices in his territory than in the 
other districts, but at the same time not to spoil the stock list for 
the other agents. To accomplish good results along this line requires 
a detailed knowledge of market conditions in the different countries. 
The agents generally have a large clientele and may easily bunch 
several orders, thereby making up a cargo. This is of special im- 
portance to miUs that do not have the benefit of direct steamship 
service to the principal markets. 

From the agents the mills obtain information regarding market 
conditions. Although this information, in most cases, is reliable 
and of great assistance, there are cases where an agent desires to 
bring pressure to bear upon the mill and gives out information cal- 
culated to make the mill reduce the price in order to enable him to 
effect a sale. For instance, it is said that agents would wire their 
connections in Sweden that competitors, ejther in Sweden or in 
another country, had offered one dimension at such and such a price. 
It often happened that the agents' reports were only partly true because 



216 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AXD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

the dimension referred to might represent only a few thousand feet 
in a cargo or might have been sold at a special low price as a com- 
pensation for concessions given by the importers. Formerly the 
mills had no means of checking up such reports and would often 
reduce their prices to make a sale. Now, however, the exporters in 
Sweden do not have to rely upon any other information than that 
which they receive from their association in Stockholm if there is 
any doubt about the truthfulness of a report from abroad. 

Most of the foreign agents also maintain a chartering service and 
are in a position to obtain freight space and effect the insurance for 
the importers, if the lumber is sold f, o. b., and for the exporters if 
the cargo is sold on a c. i. f. basis. 

In many cases the agents are required to guarantee the solvency 
of the importers to whom they sell. Evidently the agents are in 
a better position than the exporters to keep posted in regard to the 
financial position of the various importers. For this service the 
agents generally obtain about ^ oi 1 per cent commission. 

The commission received by the agents for making sales amounts 
to about 2 to 2^ per cent; in some cases it may be as low as 1^ per cent. 
Lar^e exporters of recognized standing may obtain an agent's 
services on the last-mentioned terms because their stocks are easily 
salable. Sometimes agents may cede part or all of their commission 
to the importer, as a special rebate, in order to make a sale. This 
practice is vigorously opposed by the exporters, as it is considered 
a reduction on the selling prices established by the mills. No reputable 
agency does business in this way. 

Valuable assistance is rendered by agents when claims are made 
by importers in testifying to the quality of the shipment received. 
The agent, having sold the cargo, is the logical person to represent 
the exporter. The agents are in most cases able to take care of the 
exporters' interests in a very satisfactory way and claims are usually 
settled amicably, thus preventing the expenses and trouble involved 
in having these matters settled by litigation. Some agents, however, 
have the unfavorable reputation of being inclined to settle such 
disputes in favor of the importers, in order to obtain their future 
patronage. Thus several agents may be known among importers 
as being "reasonable" in questions involving claims, but such prac- 
tices can seldom be carried on for any length of time. 

Formerly some Swedish exporters were more or less dependent 
upon financial support from their agents in the form of advances on 
the cargoes that the agents were to sell during the coming season. 
This system has now been abolished, as the mills can easily obtain 
financial support, if necessary, from Swedish banks. It is considered 
poor business policy to be financially dependent upon the agents 
in this way. 

It is not believed that foreign agents hold stocks in Swedish miUs, 
at least not to any considerable extent. 

The agents, however, partly finance the Swedish lumber exporters 
in other ways, by making arrangements for credit for the importers, 
in cases where the exporters are unable to extend this themselves. 
This will be explained in a later section. Where the exporter draw 
on the importers, the agents generally attend to collecting the drafts. 
In drawing on the agents for the amount of the cargo, a discount of 
2 to 2^ per cent is made on the f. o. b. value of the invoice. The 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Special Agents Series No. 195. 





SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 217 

total commission that the agents generally receive is thus 4 to 5^ 
per cent, made up as follows: Commission for sales made, H to 2^ 
per cent; del credere, V of one per cent; cash discount, 2 to 2^ per 
cent. 

The exporters, furthermore, often agree to settle, in part or in 
full, the agent's expenditures for postage and telegrams. The 
agents receive commission from the exporters only and not from 
the importers as well. Only in very rare cases does this commission, 
del credere, and discount exceed 5 per cent. This commission is 
considerably smaller than that received from exporters in some 
other lumber-exporting countries, but the agents state that they 
have little trouble in selling standard Swedish products, both on 
acccount of the well-estabUshed clientele that has been developed 
during the last half century and on account of the care with which 
the Swedish exporters fill their orders. 

Tlie Swedish exporters are opposed to having their agents buy out- 
right on speculation. They want them to operate only on a com- 
mission basis. There is usually no written contract but only a 
"gentlemen's agreement" between the mills and their foreign repre- 
sentatives. 

Direct dealing without the intervention of a middleman is often 
spoken of as the only desirable method of engaging in foreign trade. 
It is quite true that such dealing is ideal where it can be carried out 
but in many cases it is impractical because many matters need to be 
adjusted before a sale can be made. The agents therefore are not 
looked upon as "a necessary evil" by the Swedish lumbermen but as 
an advantageous medium by which to dispose of their stocks. If 
an agent conducts his business properly, the charge for his services is 
a small matter in comparison with the losses to which the mills ex- 
porting direct might be subjected if they lack knowledge of markets 
and customers. 

Selling through foreign agents will probably be the principal sys- 
tem followed in Sweden in the future, as it has in the past. 

(2) Selling through a domestic agent. — ^IVIills located at a distance 
from the lumber centers and unable to keep in close contact with the 
market, and smaller mills not able to maintain a special sales organi- 
zation for handling their output have frequently had recourse to 
domestic agents to handle their foreign sales. They give these 
agents the sole right to sell their lumber for export on a commission 
basis. 

It is evident that such an agency, specializing in the marketing of 
lumber abroad, would obtain more satisfactory results than mills 
without the necessary expert assistance or mills that are out of touch 
with the market. Furthermore, as a rule these domestic agents have 
been able to obtahi the same prices in the same markets for the lumber 
manufactured by small mills as for the products from larger mills. 

The domestic agents generally cover a larger field than any indi- 
vidual mill and this advantage has been apparent to most of the small 
mills. These domestic agents often finance the small mills or own 
stock m the mills they represent. Diu-ing late years this system of 
marketing has been gaining in favor, not only with small mills but 
also with larger concerns. Recently an amalgamation of several of 
the largest sawmills in Sweden has appointed a well-established 
domestic agent to handle its entire output. This agency now sells 



218 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

annually about 15 per cent of all the lumber exported from Sweden. 
Similar systems have been successfully tried out in other lines. 

Domestic agents receive a commission of about 2 to 2| per cent, 
in addition to the customary cash discount from their coimections in 
Sweden. The domestic agents have representatives attending to 
their sales in foreign markets, who are to be considered as subagents 
of the domestic agents and receive part of the commissions paid to 
the domestic agents by the mills. 

In having their lumber handled in this way by large sales agencies 
instead of by a large number of small mills, a much firmer stand can 
be maintained by the Swedish lumber exporters as a whole toward 
the importers, because this system partly eliminates the danger of 
having lumber dumped by concerns that are financially weak. If 
the products of such mills are handled by the stronger concerns of 
domestic agents, these agents, as a rule, will support the mills finan- 
cially to prevent any reckless price cutting. Besides lumber, these 
domestic agents sometimes handle also other forest products, char- 
coal, pulp, paper, timber, etc., and also maintain a chartering service 
and insurance agency. 

The great majority of the Swedish domestic agents have conducted 
their business in such a way that they have been of material assist- 
ance to the lumber industry, 

(3) Selling through own organization abroad. — Very few mills in 
Sweden are of so large a capacity as to maintain their own sales 
organizations abroad to handle their output exclusively. One of 
the largest mills in Sweden, which exports pulp, and iron and steel 
products, in addition to lumber products, maintains agencies in va- 
rious countries in Europe, such as the United Kingdom, France, Bel- 
gium, and Germany. These agencies handle'all the products of this 
company. This is evidently the most efficient way for large organi- 
zations to market their products in foreign countries, as it gives the 
exporters a better chance to push their products and to protect their 
own interests. Other agencies sometimes give too much considera- 
tion to their own profit at the expense of the shippers or do not show 
any particular willingness to exploit the markets for a new product 
as long as a satisfactory commission can be earned by selling well- 
established brands. The importers seem to favor dealings with 
branch houses because it is felt that many matters can be settled 
more easily and c[uickly by dealing direct with the exporters through 
their own organization, and dealings of this nature emphasize the 
responsibility of the shippers. To maintain such an organization, 
however, would be very expensive and would hardly be possible for 
most of the mills in Sweden, even of the largest size, if based on the 
sales of their lumber products alone. 

For instance, a mill producing 60,000,000 feet per year would pay 
a commission to an agent during normal times of about 2 per cent 
of the f. o. b. value, or $25,000 to S30,000 per annum. It is evident 
that to sell all this lumber in one market would hardly be possible, 
and it would therefore be necessary to establish several branch houses 
in different countries, the expense of which would doubtless exceed 
the cost of commissions for agents. 

(4) Selling outright to foreign agent. — It is the principle of the Swed- 
ish lumber sales policy that agents should not speculate with the 
stocks which they handle but only act as a middleman between ship- 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 219 

pors and importers, operating on a commission basis. However, in 
some rare cases foreign agents may buy outright special stocks of 
Swedish lumber, such as small quantities of extra clear boards, etc., 
which they may distribute among their customers as a matter of 
accommodation. The cases where agents buy large quantities of 
lumber are rare during normal times and may be left out of consid- 
eration. 

(5) Selling outrigTit to domestic export merchant. — ^This selling policy 
is of a decidedly primitive character and is practiced only by mills 
that are unwillm^ to make any efforts to reach foreign markets. 
This system of sellmg is frequently seen in southern Sweden, however, 
M'^here it is practically the only way for peasants and small producers 
to dispose of their lumber. 

This form of selling can not be very remunerative to the producers. 
Export merchants buy products from all parts of the country, wher- 
ever they can obtain them at the lowest prices. The lumber is 
assembled at the various ports where the export merchants some- 
times maintain yards. The grading is often done in a haphazard way 
and the product is not very uniform. The lumber is often branded 
with the merchant's brand. Some of these export merchants may 
also act as speculators in timber lands, buying small stands or con- 
tracting for cutting. The lurnber is sawed in portable mills and taken 
dowTi to the ports for shipment. 

Although this system is confined almost entirely to southern 
Sweden, some small mills in the interior Provinces of northern 
Sweden sell their lumber in this way. This selling system is of 
small importance during normal conditions in northern Sweden. 

The export merchants are often large trading companies handling 
a variety of Swedish products for export. Their activities are con- 
fined mainly to selling lumber in far-away countries and markets 
that have not been opened by regular exporters. Although it would 
seem advisable to have the mills take a more active part in marketing 
their lumber, it can not be denied that the trading companies and 
export merchants perform a valuable service in extending the markets 
for Swedish lumber. It is also convenient for many of the large 
exporters to sell to these trading companies and export merchants 
when the market is dull. The large companies usually brand their 
lumber in the usual way because this often makes the lumber more 
easily salable for the export merchants, if the mills have a good stand- 
ing among the importers. As soon as a new market has been opened 
up by the trading companies, the exporters generally endeavor to 
reach it themselves. 

(6) Selling outright to other mills. — In all districts in Sweden many 
small mills at times find themselves Avith surplus stock on hand, oi 
which they can not readily dispose in the local market. While same 
of these mills may sell then- lumber to export merchants, others prefer 
to sell their lumber to the regular export sawmills and planing mills. 
These companies are often in a better position to handle this stock 
than the export merchants, because they have the necessary facilities 
for remanufacturing defectively sawn material and because they 
regrade the lumber before it is shipped, thus making their stock 
homogeneous. 

The export mills generally make a profit of $1.25 to $2.50 per 1,000 
feet board measure by handling these stocks during normal times. 



220 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

If the lumber is poorly manufactured, the export mills may prefer to 
nm it through the planing mill, whereas the export merchant would 
sell this stock rough at a discount. It is to the advantage of the 
Swedish lumber export trade as a whole that the export mills acquire 
as large quantities as possible of small lots because such procedure 
insures uniformity of grade when the stocks are exported, and the 
exporters are thus in a better position to maintain the reputation 
that Swedish lumber has already established in foreign markets. 
The small stocks defectively manufactured and graded would not 
obtain the same prices in the export markets u their producers 
endeavored to export the lumber themselves. The quality of the 
wood from which the lumber of the small mills is manufactured may 
be just as good as that used by the export mills, and as lon^ as the 
export-mill standards of grades are maintained no objection can 
justly be raised by importers. The sale of lumber by one mill to 
another in cases of emergency has already been explained. 

(7) Exporting lumher to own organization abroad. — A few enter- 
prising Swedish export mills have established themselves in foreign 
countries as importers, maintaining yards for the distribution of 
their products among other importers and wholesalers. Unfortu- 
nately the time chosen for the inauguration of this method by the 
Swedish export mills was not favorable, and, as far as could be learned, 
only one Swedish mill intends to continue this organization in the 
future. 

If the sales can be handled on a large scale, this system has many 
advantages similar to those of a branch house. At the start, how- 
ever, such concerns must have many difficulties to overcome in the 
way of competition and bad feelings on the part of agents and im- 
porters already established in the market where they operate. In 
old-established markets it may be questionable in many; cases whether 
such steps would be advisable, but in new markets with inadequate 
import organizations this system may be practiced to good advantage, 
if properly handled, in extending the markets for Swedish lumber. 
It has generally been the experience of the Swedish lumber exporters 
selling their lumber in this way that lumber alone could not be 
handled successfully; other building materials had to be kept in 
stock at the same time. 

It may be expected in the future that the Swedish exporters will 
not endeavor to handle their own lumber in foreign markets except 
as agents, as it is not considered good policy by most of the exporters 
to enter into direct competition with the foreign importers of Swedish 
lumber. 

(8) Selling direct to importers and consumers. — ^The selling of lumber 
direct to foreign importers is not favored in Sweden. This system 
has been tried out many times by different mills, but in most cases 
the mills have come to the conclusion that an agent can best arrange 
business and that this method is the cheapest way of disposing of an 
average-sized production. 

There are, however, some mills that prefer to do as much direct 
business as possible. Such sliipmeiits are usually made from small 
mills and are practically limited to countries \v4th which Sweden is 
connected by regular steamship lines offering facilities for shipping 
lumber in parcel lots. This direct business is carried on especially 
with the Danish market. It is a common occurrence, particularly 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 221 

during late years, to see thousands of carloads of lumber being 
shipped through Sweden every year by small, interior mills, even in 
southern Norrland, transferred on the ferryboat across the narrows 
between Denmark and Sweden, and distributed throughout Denmark 
even to the German-Danish border. This lumber is often ineffi- 
ciently handled and sold to consumers, contractors, and wholesalers 
alike. 

Such business naturally causes dissatisfaction among agents abroad, 
other shippers in Sweden, and larger importers, but with extended 
steamship connections with other countries this traffic may increase. 
In some countries, however, the importers themselves have endeav- 
ored to stop these direct shipments to consumers. In other coun- 
tries the cooperation between importers is not so strong, but it is 
generally found that the small saving which the direct shipments 
may represent to the consumer does not offset the chances which he 
has to take in regard to obtaining satisfactory stocks. The small 
mills generally can not meet the requirements as satisfactorily as the 
larger exporters, and this fact will limit the growth of this direct 
trade. 

In isolated cases large mills may sell direct to importers who have 
been customers for a lon^ time and with whom they have been accus- 
tomed to do a direct business before the exporters made arrangement 
with other agents. Such exporters, however, sometimes show their 
loyalty toward their agents by giving them a commission on the sales 
made direct to customers in the agents' territories. 

(9) Consigning of lumber to foreign markets. — There may be cases 
where the consigning of lumber is justified, particularly under abnor- 
mal conditions, but making a practice of consigning lumber is con- 
sidered an inefficient and primitive way of selling lumber. It is used 
principally by firms of low standing, which are other-wise unable to 
obtain a market for their products. 

Consigning and dumping are practically the same tiling, because 
in disposing of the lumber in these ways no intelligent efforts are 
made to establish a permanent market. The sales are made in a 
haphazard way, and the consignor is not concerned about who pur- 
chases the stock or whether the stocks give satisfaction or not. As 
the material may be inspected before it is sold at auction, the buyers 
have to protect themselves. Consignments may in some cases be 
justified when a new market is to be opened , but all European mar- 
kets know Swedish lumber and there should, therefore, be no need 
of making consignments of Swedish lumber on this account. 

Consignments are usually made up of odds and ends left over in 
the yards at the end of each shipping season; they may also consist 
of scant or otherwise defective stocks, which the exporters would be 
unwilling to sell to their regular customers. These consignments 
may thus afford a good opportunity of disposing of such undesirable 
stock, but such methods, if continued, may have a depressing effect 
on the market. At any rate, it is more difficult for the owner of 
such stocks to obtain satisfactory prices when the lumber is stored 
in the importing countries and has already incurred heavy charges 
for freight, insurance, etc., and when every day of delay before a sale 
is made means increased expenses, such' as loss of interest, storage 
charges, etc. The time will come when the entu-e stock must be sold 
even below market prices to cover the amount of these charges, and 



222 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

exporters seldom realize the expected profits on such sales. This 
system of selling is generally condemned, and the lumbermen have 
endeavored through their association to check the practice of con- 
signing lumber, making definite stipulations in regard to the per- 
centage of the total stock that each member is allowed to consign. 
Five per cent is now made the limit. The importers also are gen- 
erally opposed to consignments because they make the market 
unstable. 

Formerly the consigning of lumber was looked upon by several 
financially weak concerns as an easjr manner to raise money. With 
the improved financial conditions since the war, it is not believed 
that this reason will cause the Swedish lumber exporters in general 
to make consignments. 

The principal ports to which Swedish consignments are made are 
London and Liverpool. During the war many cargoes were shipped 
to the United Kingdom on consignment because the exporters were 
frequently in a position to secure advantageous freight rates, and 
there was nearly always a good demand for lumber, so that the risk 
of having the stocks remain unsold for any length of time was very 
small. In such exceptional cases consignments are justified. 

STANDARD CONTRACTS. 

It is important to consider that all the Swedish shippers are selling 
their lumber on a standard contract, which has been agreed upon 
between the Swedish and Finnish shippers, on the one side, and on 
the other by the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom 
and similar associations in other importing countries. This contract 
is also generally adhered to by the Norwegian shippers, so that all 
three countries are basing their sales on uniform contracts. 

The following contract form is in use in Sweden. Several addi- 
tional clauses referring mainly to the present abnormal conditions 
have been eliminated in this form because it is believed that these 
clauses are of only a temporary nature. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 223 

Contract. 

(F. O. B. Form.) 

(Adopted by the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom and the Swedish 
Wood' Export Association and the Finnish Saw Mill Owners' Association.) 

—1912— 



Sold to. .. 
Bought of. 



through the agency of - 

the wood goods hereinafter specified, subject to a variation in shipper's option 
of 10 per cent more or less on any or every item, but not exceeding 20 stand- 
ards on any one item, always provided that the total quantity is not varied 
except imder the provisions of clause 5. Items of two to ten standards may 
be varied to the extent of one standard. In the event of over-shipment of 
any item, buyers are not compelled to accept or pay for anything beyond the 
quantity and margin stated in the contract. In the event of imder shipment 
of any item, buyers are to accept or pay for the quantity shipped, but have 
the right to claim compensation for the quantity short-shipped. Each item 
of this contract to be considered a separate interest, 
to be loaded at Gefie and to be ready for shipment 'per 1st July, 1914- 

Other conditions as specified on the back. 

SPECIFICATION. 



Redwood 3rds -A-** 



About lOstdsS x9 ^£11—.. 
9.5/—. 
8. 10/-- 
8. 10/- 
8.5/—. 



5. §= 



CQ oq 



100 " 


2ixt 


15 " 


Ux5 


15 " 


] x5 


10 " 


1 x4i 


25 " 


1 x4 


10 " 


3 x9 


20 " 


3 x7 


30 " 


2^x7 


10 " 


lix5 


10 " 


1 x5 



Redwood 4ths ir-k 



10.—.... 
8. 10/—. 
8. 10/—. 
7. 10/—. 
7. 10/—. 



Redwood u/s K^B 



15 



3 x4i 8.15/- 



11 



3x5 



Redwood 5ths AXC 



6. 10/- 



Torrfuru Ists S^P 



16 " 3 x5 0.10/—. 
About 297 stds 
London, the 25th March, 1914. 



Hull, the 25th March, 1914. 



As Sellers' Agents, 



As Buyers. 



The Prices are in British Sterling:< 



224 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

CONDITIONS. 

'Sawn goods per St. Petersburg Standard of 

165 cubic feet. 
Planed goods per St. Petersburg Standard of 

165 cubic feet (nominal measure). 
Hewn goods per load of 50 cubic feet (Cus- 
toms' Calliper Measure, excepting Upper 
Gulf hewn balks). 

Firewood per fathom of 216 feet cube. 
All free alongside the ship. 

2. Sellers undertake to supply sufficient ends, 6 to 8 feet for broken stowage only, at 
two-thirds price, but not exceeding 5 per cent, of the cargo unless otherwise agreed. 
Such ends to be regarded as included in the quantities named on the other side but to 
be disregarded in the calculation of average length. Shippers, to have the right to 
supply up to the said 5 per cent of ends at two-thirds pnce, whether required for 
broken stowage or not. 

3. The goods are to be properly seasoned for shipment to the U. K. and shall be 
of the shipper's usual bracking, average length and fair specification for such descrip- 
tion of goods, and delivered to the ship in accordance with the Custom of the Port, 
the sellers not being responsible for any deterioration occasioned by circumstances 
beyond their control after the goods have left shippers' wharf properly protected. 

4. Shiproom to be provided in due time by buyers with the customary time for 
loading. Buyers undertake that at least six clear days' notice shall be given to 
shippers direct before arrival of any steamer to load under this contract, such notice 
stating steamer's and charterer's name, and that full loading orders shall be in 
shipper's hands not later than six days before the notified due date of such vessel's 
arrival. 

5. A margin of 10 per cent, more or less, but not exceeding 50 standards, is to be 
allowed to buyers for convenience of chartering, but when several shipments are made 
under the same contract, such margin shall only apply to the quantity by the last 
vessel. Should buyers under this clause demand an increase of total contract quan- 
lity sellers to give such increase in contract sizes, thqugh not more than double the 
quantity of any item. 

6. Shippers' liability to load at "first open water" shall not commence until the 
deliveries from the wharves and quays are entirely unhindered by ice. Note. — It 
is suggested that a clause to this effect be inserted in the Charter Party. 

7. Marine insurance of cargo and freight advance to be covered by the buyers and 
opened as soon as tonnage is secured. It is understood that buyer's marine risk 
commences if and when the goods are loaded into lighters for shipment after receipt 
of the notice from steamer of her expected arrival. 

8. Any freight advance to be settled by cash in exchange for captain's receipt, 
except on firewood when loaded by sailing vessel, in which case by thirty day's 
draft from date of bill of lading. 

9. In case the manufacture and/or shipment of any of the goods be delayed or 
hindered by floods, drought, ice, destruction of mill and/or goods herein specified by 
reason of fire, strikes, lock-out, or any similar cause, shippers shall not be responsible 
for any damages arising therefrom, provided prompt notice be given to the buyer, 
but in such event only shippers have the right dunng six (6) weeks from stipulated 
date of delivery of completing the contract, but on the expiration of such extended 
time, if shippers then declare or have previously declared their inability to deliver, 
buyers shall thereupon have the option to be promptly declared, of canceling the 
contract, or continuing the same for such date of delivery as may be mutually agreed 
upon, but in any event not later than the following f . o. w. 

A strike or lock-out of the shippers' men only shall not exonerate them from any 
demurrage for which the charterer may be liable under the charter, if by the use of 
reasonable diligence the shipper could have obtained other suitable labor. 

10. It is mutually agreed that, should war, prohibition of export or blockade pre- 
vent shippers from shipping or buyers from lifting the goods herein specified wdthin 
the time stipulated in the contract, this contract shall be cancelea for goods not 
delivered. 

11. Payment to be made on receipt of and in exchange for shipping docu- 
ments by approved acceptances of sellers' or authorized agents' drafts, payable 
in London ntfour months from date of bill of lading, or at buyer's option, in cash less 
2^ per cent discount payable in London. Sellers to give notice of vessel's arrival in 
the case of steamers by telegraph, and buyer's option as to mode of payment to be 
declared on receipt of such notice. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 99.— DOUBLE RESAW. 




FIG. 100.— RESAW. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 101.— AUTOMATIC BOX MACHINE. 




FIG. 102.— DOUBLE RESAW FOR BO,X MATERIAL. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AISTD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 225 

12. Should any of the goods not be removed by September 1, 1914, payment to be 
made in the manner provided above against approximate invoice of the said date, 
the goods then remaining at the risk of the buyers but at the expense of the sellers, 
provided, however, that if the goods are still unshipped by 31st August of the following 
year, the buyers shall pay 5s. per standard rent to the sellers. Buyer's liability to 
pay for the goods under this clause shall, however, be suspended if the failure to 
remove is due to any of the contingencies covered by clause 9, and the drawing date 
shall be postponed for a period corresponding in length to the duration of the delay. 

13. No complaint or claim will be recognized by sellers upon any goods shipped 
under this contract, unless reasonable particulars are given to agents within 21 days 
from date of ship's final discharge, but any claim on the condition of the goods shall 
be announced within 14 days thereof. No claim shall be recognized on any item or 
separate parcel shipped which has been broken into; but otherwise buyers shall be 
at liberty to deal with any items or parcels on which there is no complaint without 
prejudice to their right to claim on any intact items or parcels (including separate 
bills of lading delivered overside) under the arbitration clause. An item or parcel 
shall be considered to be intact if it can be produced to the arbitrators in its entirety 
as discharged. 

14. Property in goods to be deemed for all purposes, except retention of vendor's 
lien for unpaid purchase price, to have passed to buyers when goods put on board. 

15. The goods to be shipped under as many bills of lading as may be reqmred by 
buyers, provided that the total number issued shall not exceed 5 per 100 standards, 
and that for any B/L in excess, buyers shall pay one guinea. 

16. Should any dispute arise under this contract wmch it may be found impossible 
to settle by amicable aiTangement, the same shall forthwith be referred to the decision 
of a third party to be mutually agreed upon, or in default of agreement to two arbi- 
trators, one arbitrator to be appointed by the sellers and one by the buyers. Such 
arbitrators shall, previously to entering upon the arbitration, appoint an umpire, and 
the arbitration shall be subject to the English Arbitration Act of 1889, or any subsisting 
statutory modification thereof or substitution therefor. Buyers shall not reject the 
goods herein specified, but shall accept or pay for them in terms of contract against 
shipping documents. In the event of either side failing to appoint their arbitrator 
within seven days after being requested through the agents under this contract so to 
do, the arbitrator thus required shall be appointed by the President, or failing him by 
the Vice-President of the Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom, on the 
application of either party. In the case of a claim not exceeding £25, or on less than 
25 standards the dispute shall, if not amicably settled, be referred to one arbitrator, 
and in default of the parties agreeing on his appointment, he shall be appointed by 
the President, or failing him by the Vice-President of the Timber Trade Federation 
of the United Kingdom. Every arbitrator or umpire shall be selected from members 
of the timber trade, or from the arbitrators approved by the Timber Trade Federation 
of the United Kingdom, or by the Scandinavian Sawmillers' Associations. Any 
award shall be final and binding upon both parties. The costs of such arbitration 
shall be left to the discretion of the arbitrators or umpire. In deciding as to costs, 
the arbitrators or umpire shall take into consideration the correspondence between 
the parties relating to the dispute, and their respective efforts to arrive at a fair settle- 
ment. This agreement shall be made a rule of court on the application of either party. 

The above clause not to apply in case of any of the goods being shipped to the colonies 
or Mediterranean ports. 

In the contracts the sellers are given some latitude in regard to 
changing the specifications. While in other countries exporters have 
sometimes misused this right and have shipped specifications of an 
entirely different nature for those desired by the importers, this com- 
plaint has seldom or never been heard in connection with shipments 
from Sweden, Norway, and Finland. The buyer also has a right to 
make some changes in the specifications, but the difference between 
the seller's right and the buyer's right in this respect is that the 
seller has only the right to increase or decrease the quantity of the 
different items, but must always ship the total quantity specified in 
the contract, whereas the buyer can vary the total quantity to be 
shipped, up to 10 per cent, but the quantities covering this variation 
must not exceed 50 standards (99,000 feet board measure). If the 
shipper is supplying excess quantities beyond the variation to which 

2092°— 21 -15 



226 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

he is entitled according to the contract, the importer may refuse to 
accept these excess quantities. If the exporter, on the other hand, 
supphes smaller quantities than he should according to the contract, 
the buyer must both pay for and accept these quantities shipped, 
but he can afterwards make a claim for losses caused by the exporter's 
failure to carry out the contract. In regard to short lengths, the seller 
is compelled by the contract to furnish lengths of 6, 7, and 8 feet up 
to and including 5 per cent of the whole cargo, and the seller also has 
the right to demand that tliis quantity be included in each cargo, 
whether short lengths are needed for stowage or not. 

There are no special rules covering the distribution of this stowage 
among the different items, and certain dimensions always are accom- 
panied by a larger percentage of short lengths than other dimensions 
dependent upon the percentage of short lengths produced by the mill 
in each case. The contract generally stipulates that the exporter 
must make up the shipment of a fair specification and this stipulation 
is to some extent a protection for the importer in this respect. The 
short lengths are not taken into consideration in calculating, the 
average length of the whole cargo. The contract specifies that the 
lumber must be properly seasoned and graded according to the usual 
established rules of the particular exporter. One exporter is not 
dependent upon the grading rules that other exporters in the same 
district may use. 

After the lumber has been removed from the dock and is properly 
protected in the barges, the exporters are not responsible for any 
deterioration. 

The following is the form for the bill of lading : 

Shipped in good order and condition by in the good steamship called the Pan, 

whereof Nordgren is master for this present voyage, and now lying in Gefle and bound 
for Hull {Dock as ordered on arrival) via other loading ports, as per charter, dated June 
20, 1914 (with liberty to call at any ports in any order, to coal, or for loading or dis- 
charging cargo under the ice clause — No. 8 — in the undermentioned charter party, 
or otherwise, to sail without pilots, and to tow and assist vessels in distress, and to 
deviate for the purpose of saving life or property). 

K^B 26,339 pieces 3X9, 4^; liX5; 1X5, 4^X4 inches deals, battens and boards. 

of which — pieces on deck at charterers' risk. And to be delivered in the like good 
order and condition at the aforesaid port of Hull as above. 

The act of God, the King's enemies, restraint of princes and rulers, perils of the 
seas excepted. Also fire, barratry of the master and crew, pirates, collisions, straiidings 
and accidents of na\'igation, or latent defects in, or accidents to, hull and/or machinery, 
and/or boilers, always excepted, even when occasioned by the negligence, default, 
or error in judgment of the pilot master, mariners, or other persons employed by the 
shipowner, or for whose acts he is responsible not resulting, however, in any case 
from want of due diligence by the owner of the ship, or by the ship's husband or 
manager. 

unto Order or his or their Assigns, he or they paying freight for the same as per charter 
party dated June 20, 1914, all the terms and exceptions contained in which charter 
are herewith incorporated. 

General average payable according to York Antwerp Rules, 1890, excepting that 
jettison of deck cargo (and the freight thereon) for the common safety shall be allowed 
as general average. 

In witness whereof the master or agent of the said ship hath signed three bills of 
lading all of this tenor and date, any one of which being accomplished the others 
to be void. 

Dated in Gefle this 9th day of July, 1914- 

•.Quality, condition, and measure unknown. 

J. NOEDGREN, 

Captain. 



SWEDISH LUIMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 227 




228 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

BRANDING. 

When the branding system was started in Sweden is not recorded 
but it is thought to have been in, existence for 100 years or more. 
The branding of lumber is in general use all over Sweden. There is 
no exporter of any importance in the country who does not in some 
way or other trade-mark his lumber for export. 

The Swedish brands usually designate the name of the shipper and 
the grade of lumber. Some mills also find it desirable to differentiate 
in the brand between pine and spruce and also between planed lumber 
and rough lumber. 

The effect of trade-marking lumber can not be overestimated, and 
it would be impossible to consider the success of the Swedish lumber 
exporters without giving attention to their branding system. The 
Swedish lumber exporters contend that unbranded lumber indicates 
that there is something wi'ong with the product, because the producer 
or exporter has shown himsslf unwilling to stand behind it. 

It has been mentioned that certain mills or districts obtain better 
prices than others. These higher prices are due in many cases to 
the fact that the mill or the district has been careful for years in main- 
taining its reputation by always shipping the lumber up to grade and 
otherwise carefully fulfilling its contracts. Many importers are will- 
ing to pay an extra charge to be assured that the lumber will be 
shipped strictly according to contract. The effect of the brand is 
not restricted, however, to the importer. The wholesalers and con- 
sumers generally pay as much attention to the brand as the importer 
and it is frequently heard abroad that customers specify the same 
brands year in and year out. The demand for such branded lumber 
therefore is being created not only by importers but also by their 
customers — wholesalers and consumers. 

It is readily seen that these conditions tend to increase the demand 
for the different brands of Swedish lumber and that price cutting 
between the exporters to some extent will be eliminated by having 
each mill cater to the old-established customers. The larger the 
clientele of the exporter, the more careful he must be to retain his 
customers by maintaining the established standards of grades. 

Indicating the grade on each piece is of the greatest importance. 
In case of claim, it would always be easy to arrive at a conclusion, 
because every piece of lumber bears the quality mark and no tamper- 
ing with the grades is possible. In cases where only the shipper's 
name is indicated on every piece of lumber or the lumber does not 
bear any trade-mark at all, tampering with the grades is easy and of 
frequent occurrence. If the importer buys lumber of one grade and 
sells it as a higher grade, the consumer wiU not be protected and the 
resulting dissatisfaction will eventually cause a decreased demand for 
inadequately branded stock. 

In the case of lumber branded with the shipper's name and the 
quality at the same time, it is impossible to misrepresent the quality 
upon which basis the lumber is sold and although the prices may be 
higher before it reaches the consumer, he always knows what he is 
paying for. In case lumber not up to grade has been shipped, no 
responsible shipper could afford to disregard the settling of such 
claims on branded stock, and knowing this, the agents handling such 
branded lumber are likely to work on a lower commission basis 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 229 

because handling such stock involves less trouble. The brand is also 
a guaranty for the importer and he is willing to pay for this assur- 
ance of the shipper's responsibility. 

To show the importance that is attached to the branding of Swedish 
lumber, it may be mentioned that some time ago a foreign Govern- 
ment offered for sale at low prices stocks shipped by comparatively 
unknown Swedish exporters. These stocks were open for inspec- 
tion at the port in the foreign country. In spite of the low prices, 
most of the importers preferred to pay several dollars extra for 
branded lumber from old estabUshed concerns in Sweden, though the 
lumber offered by the Government was said to equal the branded 
lumber in quality. 

The branding of pine and spruce separately is not general but it is 
seen at times. The pine, for instance, may be branded in blue and 
spruce in red. Planed lumber is usually branded with a special 
symbol to distinguish it from rough stock. Several Swedish ex- 
porters give as a reason for this practice that Swedish lumber is 
often planed unsatisfactorily in foreign countries, and if such 
planed stock is sold carrying the brand of the Swedish shipper of the 
rough stock it may misrepresent the Swedish shipper unless there is 



STORA KOPPARBERGS BERGStAGS AKTIEBOLAG 

STOCKHOLM, SV^BDEN. 

(OLDEST JOINT STOCK COMPANY IN THE WORLD, FOUNDED ABOIT A. D. 1 225.) Telegraphic Address : . BERaSLAOET. STOCKHOLM. 

Manufacturers and Exporters of SAWN & PLANED GOODS. 
Port of Shipment: SKUTSKAR (Oefle District). 



. Sawn Goods • 

I SKB 

1 DOM 

III DM 

IV D*M 

U/s Red «DM# 

V A*S 

Wrack... AWS 
>Torratk» A#S 



Slilpplns Harks I 

Ditcotored Redwood 

I F«B 

II F + B 

III FBL 

IV ELF 

Unsorted .. B 

For Continent only. 

U/s WhitewoodBBB 
Discol. U/s white BB 



Planed Coodi 

Ex. I. . #SKB* 
I.... SKB 
11... DOM 
III.. DM 

U/s whilewood 
*SKUTSKAR*: 
disQolored red- 
wood F*B 



PRINCIPAL AGENTS: 

For the United Kingdom: S'ora Kopparbergt Bergilagi Aktiebotag Ageneu, 

Limited. 6 Laurence Pou/i(nr« Hut, Cannon Street, London. E. L 

Tel Addrets: iBergslags, London.* 
For France and Beiglum: Slora Koppartiergi Bergslag Socleif Anongme d'Agen 

ce. n. Rue d Anjou, Partt Mil. e fet. Addreii •Bergttnget. Parti.. ■ 
For Germany ^tora Kopparbergj Bergatag, C. m b. H . Senator Hagn-Haul 

AlBterdamm. W. Hamburg. I. Tel. Address tStortlkoppa/berg. Hamburg. 
For Dcnmaric L. Vitdau. Slormgade W. Copenhagen. 



For Spain and Portugal. 



Fig. 104.— Sample of Swedish advertisement, showing brands. 

some indication that rough stock was shipped from Sweden and that 
the defective manufacture, therefore, is due to causes beyond the 
exporter's control. 

Some firms may also make special grades and brands for dis- 
colored lumber. Particularly the mills cutting a considerable per- 
centage of the upper grades of stock may obtain a better price for 
discolored lumber by separating it from the other grades. Many 
mills have three or four grades of discolored lumber. This stock is 
always specially designated as discolored stock in order to prevent 
tampering with the grades. 

Sawmill companies operating several mills in different districts 
may have different symbols indicating the point of shipment. Some- 
times the mills have different symbols for each country of destina- 
tion, but this is not always considered good policy. 

There is a variety of types of brands. Usually the brands are 
made up of the initials of the mill or mill owner, and the different 
qualities may be designated by a crown, star, a plus or a minus sign, 
or by the order in which the letters are placed. The following are 
some of the Swedish lumber brands for various grades of lumber and 
places of shipmento 



230 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

HUDIKSVALL SHIPMENT. 

Sawn lumber: 

First grade H ^ H 

Second grade H^H 

Third grade H H H 

Fourth grade 3 H B 

Unsorted grade +H H+ 

Fif th grade M D M 

Sixth grade M M M 

Planed lumber: 

First grade '^HTA'^ 

Second grade HT-^AB 

Third grade HTAB 

Unsorted grade H W A L L 

SKELLEFTEA SHIPMENT. 

Sawn lumber: 

First grade J M A 

Second grade RKL 

Third grade UND 

Fourth grade BAB 

Fifth grade N P U 

Sixth grade B # A - 

Unsorted grade BURE 

Planed lumber: 

First gi-ade B U^ RE 

Second grade B U* R E 

Third grade BAB 

Unsorted grade BURE 

Symbols are usually selected for the different grades in such a way 
that tampering would be difficult. Sometimes the entire name 
of the mill may be made the basis of the brand, and this is very effec- 
tive if the name is short. Some mills register their brands, but tills 
is not usually considered necessary, although several shippers in 
Sweden and in neighboring countries have taken the same branding 
symbols. 

Both in Sweden and abroad there have been published keys to 
the different brands. The Swedish edition is especially complete 
and is called the Timber Trades Handbook, published by Th. A. 
Askergren, Stockholm. It contains Yery valuable information in 
'regard to the shipping marks in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and 
Russia, and general information as well about each one of these 
countries. The first part of the book contains data about the forests 
and the lumber and pulp industries in each country, and in the sec- 
tion containing the directory of the various exporters complete 
information is given in regard to the mills, their equipment, pro- 
duction, administration, shipping ports, and agents, and a complete 
record of the different brands, covering all grades and species. 

A book called Sliipping Marks on Timber is published hj the 
Timber Trades Journal, of London. This book contains a kef to the 
different brands for Sweden, Norway, Finland, Russia, Germany, 
Canada, the United States, and a few other countries. 

Branding in Sweden may justly be termed the backbone of the 
lumber export trade, and it would serve the same purposes for 
American lumber exporters if it were generally adopted in the 
United States. The branding of lumber for export in the United 
States might be handled in the most efficient way by having the 
various lumbei' associations arrange for a uniform system of desig- 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 231 

Dating shippers' names, quality, species, etc. The brand could also 
indicate that the shipper was a member of one particular association. 
In this way greater uniformity would be feasible and it would be 
easier for the importers to acquaint themselves with the meaning of 
these symbols, rrobably the branding would also redound to the 
benefit of the reliable shippers if the association could exercise a 
certain control of the use of the brands by refusing membership to 
-notoriously dishonest exporters. It would be advisable for Ameri- 
can shippers to register their brands. The quality of the lumber 
should be indicated by the brands; otherwise it would stiU be easy 
for middlemen, importers, wholesalers and retailers abroad, to tam- 
per with the grades. 

TRADE JOURNALS — ADVERTISING. 

One lumber trade journal in Sweden has a wide circulation among 
the exporters in that country and in Norway, Finland, and Russia, 
and also among the importers in the various countries. This publi- 
cation, called The Swedish Timber Trades Journal, is published in 
Stockholm and contains valuable information on the lumber market 
in the different countries, besides various articles on freights, produc- 
tion of lumber, and matters of local interest. The leading articles 
in this paper are printed in English also. 

Advertising systems in Europe, as a whole, are not developed to 
such an extent as in the United States. In many cases some old- 
estabhshed firms contend that they are so well known that they do 
not have to advertise. Many fii*ms seem to have aU the business 
they can handle and are unwiUing to enlarge the scope of their activi- 
ties. In this respect business generally is conducted in a much more 
conservative way than in the United States. 

The lumber export trade in most of the European countries belongs 
to one of the most conservative branches of commercial activities, 
and the advertising of lumber or the advocating of different species 
of lumber for different uses is not usually seen. The Swedish lum- 
ber exporters do not av ail themselves of the press to further their 
business to any great extent. 

The more important Swedish exporters limit their advertising to 
simple statements in Swedish and foreign lumber journals, usually 
containing only the name of the shipper, the capacity of his mill, 
shipping' marks (brands), and the name of the agent handling his 
products. No efforts are being made to push the different products 
in other ways through the press or to point out the special features 
in connection vnth the shipments from any one exporter. 

In figure 104 is seen a typical Swedish advertisement of this nature, 
representing one of the largest shippers in northern Europe. The 
mere fact that this company has been established since about 1225 
A. D, would probably give this company a standing without any 
further explanation. The importance that the Swedish exporters 
attach to their brands is seen from the fact that these brands are 
nearly always inserted in the advertisement. 

Occasionally Swedish lumber exporters also take an active part in 
properly advertising their stocks in foreign markets. Figure 91 
shows such an example, giving a price list, accompanied by an ex- 
planation in Greek about the Swedish exporter and his products, 



232 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

steamships, etc., whose lumber the importer who issues this cata- 
logue is handling. It must also be noted that the trade-marks 
occupy a very prominent place in this price list, which shows that 
even m so small and unimportant a market as Greece the trade- 
marks are considered essential for the efficient marketing of Swedish 
lumber. 

SWEDISH LUMBER EXPORTERS' ASSOCIATION. 

The excellent results accomplished by the Swedish lumber ex- 
porters in extending their markets all over the world would not have 
been obtained were it not for the important work of the Swedish 
Lumber Exporters' Association. This association has been in exist- 
ence for many years, but only during the last decade has it played 
any important part in the export trade. At present the member- 
ship represents the shippers of more than 90 per cent of the lumber 
exported from Sweden. The outsiders consist mainly of smaller mills 
which do not produce sufficient quantities to make any difference in 
the program of the exporters' organization. The main office of this 
association is located in Stockholm; there are several branches in 
theprmcipal shipping districts throughout Sweden. 

The membership fee paid in Sweden is rather low. During normal 
years the membership fees amounted to about $20,000, but at present 
they are somewhat higher. The expenses are chiefly for administra- 
tion and office expenditures, as generally money is not given out for 
advertisements, exhibits, etc. 

The principal object of this association is to maintain a certain 
price standard on lumber for export. In advance of each seffing 
season a special committee of the members decides upon the mini- 
mum prices for each district which the members must obtam. Before 
the war there was no written contract in regard to the minimum 
prices; the imderstanding among the members was considered a 
"gentlemen's agreement." Dm'ing the war, however, stricter meas- 
ures were taken to prevent the members from underselling one 
another, after the placing of orders for the AUies was put into the 
hands of the British Timber Controller. It was evident to the Swed- 
ish exporter that weakness on the part of any of their members in 
their selling policy would immediately have a serious effect on the 
prices for aU mills. Special contracts, accordingly, were signed by 
aU members, whereby they bound themselves to observe the rules in 
regard to the general selling policy, minimum prices, etc., established 
by the association. A board of 17 representatives from aU shipping 
districts was appointed by the members, and detailed minimum price 
lists were issued covering each dimension and grade in each shipping 
district. The different countries of destination were given special 
schedules. The prices were changed from time to time to follow the 
market. Special attention was given to extra charges for odd sizes, 
etc. 

The members were required to establish a certain financial guar- 
anty to which the association had access in case any member should 
break the contract, and heavy fines were imposed by the association 
for such breach of agreement. Furthermore, it was left to this com- 
mission to pass on important questions in regard to the general selling 
policy of the members. This arrangement is still in effect and will 
probably be maintained. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 233 

The members must report the details of sales as soon as they are 
made. This information must contain a detailed account of the terms 
of sale, specifications, prices, and country and region of destination, 
but not the name of the importer nor the port of destination. This 
information is communicated to the other members, who thus are 
able to follow the market independently of any information from the 
outside. This system stood its test during the latter part of the war 
and the Swedish lumber exporters were able to raise their prices on 
their products to correspond to the heavy increases for raw material 
and labor. 

This cooperation among the exporters in Sweden enabled them to 
deal successfully with the strongest and most powerful factor in the 
lumber import trade that the world has ever seen. That this coopera- 
tion will continue is certain, particularly since the Finnish Association 
has entered into a close connection with the Swedish Association, 
establishing a fixed relation between the base prices in the two 
countries. 

Important work was accomplished before the war by the Swedish 
Association in having the contracts covering lumber sales for export 
standardized for all mills. During the war several important changes 
were made in the established form of the contract, such as selling on 
a guaranteed rate-of-exchange basis, all of which were taken up by 
the association in behalf of its members. 

Various efforts have also been made by the association, through 
the district branches, to stabilize the prices on saw logs delivered at 
the main floating rivers. It can not be said that the association has 
been so successful in this undertaking as in fixing prices for lumber 
export. If it were only a question of competition among the asso- 
ciation members in regard to the purchase of saw logs, the matter 
would not be so difficult, but many outsiders and pulp mills offer 
keen competition, and the base price fixed at the beginning of a season 
is seldom adhered to. 

The curtailing of production by mutual agreement has not often 
been necessary. The mills generally judge for themselves in advance 
of each season what the prospects will be for the next sales campaign, 
and as they generally have the same customers year after year, each 
mill decides its own policy. 

ARBITRATION SERVICE. 

Before the war the association instituted an arbitration service in 
several of the principal importing countries. It was frequently found 
that importers made unreasonable claims, knowing that the exporters 
or their representatives could not always check up their statements. 
Swedish lumber experts are stationed in different lumber centers in 
Europe and in case of claims the assistance of these experts can be 
demanded. The contracts usually stipulate that the decision of these 
experts is to be final. 

In the United Kingdom, during 1914, the association experts acted 
in 31 cases of claims involving approximately 6,000,000 feet board 
measure of sawn and planed lumber. The total amount of claims 
demanded was about $8,100, of which about $3,200 was granted. 
In 12 cases the complaints were poor quality; in 3 cases poor quality 
and excess of wane; in 3 cases, excess of wane; in 2 cases, excess of 



234 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

wane and excess percentage of short lengths; in 1 case, excess of 
wane, discoloration, short average lengths, etc. ; in 1 case, scant lum- 
ber; in 1 case, rot; in 1 case, discoloration; in 1 case, warped stock; 
in 1 case, careless trimming; in 1 case, scant thickness; in 1 case, de- 
fective tying of bundled goods; and in 1 case poor manufacturing. 
Two cases were unjustified claims. Considering that the United 
ffingdom is the most important market for Swedish lumber, the num- 
ber of complaints is insignificant. 

The experts are paid chiefly by the Swedish Exporters' Association, 
but their services have been considered very valuable by both ex- 
porters and importers. Besides their assistance in the satisfactory 
settling of claims, the mere presence of these men prevents many 
unreasonable complaints. Among the reliable importers this arbi- 
tration system has been looked upon with 'favor because it proves 
that the intentions of the Swedish shippers are to make right what 
might be wrong. The expense of maintaining the service is consid- 
erable, but it is estimated that the Swedish exporters indirectly are 
deriving great benefits. Tlie value of this assistance must be esti- 
mated not by the number of disputes that the arbitrators may settle 
in the exporters' favor but rather by the elimination of many com- 
plaints through the presence of these representatives abroad. 

ATTEMPT TO ESTABLISH UNIFORM GRADING RULES. 

Efforts made by the association to establish uniform grading rules 
for its members have not succeeded. This circumstance must be seen, 
however, in the light of the proverbially conservative policy of the 
Swedes in all their dealings. Certain mills long ago established a 
standard of grades, which is known to their customers, and change 
in this standard of grades would give their old-established connections 
reason for dissatisfaction. The association, therefore, has not been 
able to establish uniformity in this respect, although the question 
has been considered. 

CHARTERING BUREAU. 

One of the most recent and most successful activities of the asso- 
ciation is the establishing of a freight bureau for its members. With 
the increasing c. i. f. sales in Sweden, many exporters, especially the 
smaller ones, have lost a great deal of money on the chartering of 
vessels because they were not alwaj^s in a position to follow the freight 
market. Only the largest mills can afford to maintain a chartering 
and shipping department. Many mills are located at a great dis- 
tance from tlie principal shipping centers and often it is difficult for 
them to keep posted as to freights, etc. Usually, therefore, the mills 
have been more or less in the hands of the steamship owners. 

In order to remedy this condition, the association established a 
chartering bureau in 1915. The object of this bureau was to keep 
the association members informed regarding the freight market and 
to enable them to form their own opinion in regard to the tonnage 
question. It was first intended to operate merely as an informa- 
tion bureau, but later, the bureau's activities were extended to the 
chartering of tonnage for association members. From time to time, 
the exporters turn in to the bureau reports regarding their future 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 235 

tonnage requirements, and these enable the bureau to work to better 
advantage. 

The bureau does not speculate in freights, and tonnage is char- 
tered only when it is needed. Opinions differed a great deal at the 
start regarding the usefulness of such an organization, but the asso- 
ciation members now seem to be very well satisfied with the results. 
The cost of maintaining this service is borne by the association mem- 
bers through a small membership fee based on a fraction of 1 cent per 
1,000 feet of the total shipments of the various mills dm^ing normal 
years and a small commission per ton of chartered space. 

INFORMATION SERVICE. 

One of the most successful and most important activities of the 
association is its information service. It is difficult to find exporters 
better posted on conditions in the importing comitries than the 
Swedish lumber exporters. Aside from the fact that many of these 
exporters themselves have spent considerable time abroad working 
in various lumber offices and nave frequently traveled in the principal 
importing countries in Europe, they are constantly kept posted 
thi'ough the association with regard to events in the lumber world. 

The association publishes a confidential magazine, by which its 
members are kept informed regarding market conditions, prices, 
stock needed, etc., for different countries, the data being supplied by 
regular correspondents all over the world. Very full information is 
given in this way, both in regard to the matters dit-ectly affecting 
the Swedish exporters and also in regard to the activities of the other 
principal lumber-exporting countries. Information from Swedish 
Government officials abroad is also incorporated in these reports. 
The Swedish lumber exporters fully understand the value of this 
publication, as the Swedish papers in general contain only limited 
information in regard to market reports, etc. 

The association has also taken up the work of compiling statistics. 
Data are gathered from all parts of the world concerning imports and 
exports of lumber, and special attention is given to the other north 
Em'opean lumber-exporting countries. Complete import statistics 
for every market are also prepared, so that the members at all times 
can follow the development of their own business, as well as that of 
the other lumber-exporting countries. The association's statistics 
are probably unequaled. 

The association also warns Swedish exporters against dishonest 
importers and agents. Therefore a questionable deal may be made 
by an agent or importer once, but hardly twice. 

The information service is not confined to conditions affecting the 
lumber export trade in foreign countries. The technical problems in 
regard to sawmill machinery, etc., are occasionally taken up in the 
confidential publication, but this service has not yet been fully devel- 
oped. The district offices all report to the head office and these 
reports are published in the magazine. Such information contains 
reports on forest operations, floatmg, sawing, exporting, labor supply 
and demand, etc. The association also published statistics regard- 
ing stocks on hand and sales made in Finland, Russia, Norway, and 
Sweden. 



236 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

These are the principal items covered in the confidential publica- 
tion. All of it is considered confidential and is reserved for mem- 
bers. Very little information is given out to the press. A branch of 
the information service, however, is devoted to press campaigns, 
which are carried on by the association when questions arise that are 
of vital importance to its members, in regard to legislation, trans- 
portation, taxes, tariffs, etc, 

COOPERATION WITH GOVERNMENT AND WITH OTHER ASSOCIATIONS. 

The association's influence in official circles is considerable and it 
is looked upon almost as a semiofiicial institution. It receives lib- 
eral support from the Swedish Government in many ways, as the 
success of the lumber export trade, which affects the whole nation's 
welfare, is thought by many to be dependent mainly upon this organ- 
ization. There are no antitrust laws in Sweden and price fixing is 
not contrary to the law. If the exporters operate successfully, the 
revenue of the Government in the form of taxes increases corres- 
pondingly. 

During the last years before the war an important step was taken 
by the Swedish association in seeking the cooperation of other asso- 
ciations in northern and eastern Europe. Especially with the Fin- 
nish association, the Swedish association has established very close 
connection and the newly reorganized association in Finland is 
modeled after the Swedish association. The Swedish association is 
also cooperating with the association in Norway; but as Norway 
exports mainly planed lumber and the conditions in general are 
somewhat different from those in Sweden, the need for close coop- 
eration with this country is not so pressing. With Russian lumber 
associations a similar plan of cooperation was started before the war, 
but this work did not lead up to any tangible results on account of the 
lack of organization among the lumber exporters in Russia. Renewed 
efforts are contemplated, however, when order is restored in that 
country. The Finnish, Norwegian, and Swedish associations and a 
few local Russian associations exchange reports concerning stocks on 
hand, prices, and sales made, 

ADVANTAGE OF SIMILAR ORGANIZATION FOR UNITED STATES. 

It would be of great benefit to establish a lumber exporters' 
association in the United States, to take up several of the activities 
in which the Swedish association is engaged. Leaving the price- 
fixing question out of consideration, an association of exporters in 
this country could offer valuable service to both exporters and 
importers by establishing miiform sales contracts, arbitration service 
abroad, a chartering bureau, etc., and could also disseminate informa- 
tion among American exporters regarding market conditions abroad. 

TERMS OF PAYMENT AND FINANCING OF LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Considering the heavy investments that most of the Swedish 
sawmill plants and forest operations represent and the length of time 
that the operators usually must wait for their money from the time 
the timber is cut until it is manufactured and ready for shipment, 
it would not be possible in most cases for them to grant long credits 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




Courtesy of Forester JNI. Nordquist. 

FIG. 105. — MINE PROPS IN PORT OF GOTEBORG. 




Courtesy of Forester M. Nordquist. 

FIG. 106.— TIES IN PORT OF GOTEBORG. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 107.— SQUARE TIMBER, ISLAND OF GOTLAND. 




CourtL-ay of Hufarnut A/li. 

FIG. 103.— THE FIRST REFANUT LUMBER RAFT, CARRYING ABOUT 4,000,000 FEET 

BOARD MEASURE. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 237 

to importers. The cases where the exporters in Sweden carried the 
importers for any length of time were rare. The financing of the 
lumber export trade therefore, had been left to a large extent to 
banks or agents. It is an erroneous impression which has prevailed 
that the Swedish exporters were able to extend their markets abroad, 
mainly because they themselves granted long credits. 

During the war, many , changes were made in the methods of 
paying for lumber shipments ; but as developments since the armistice 
have shown that Swedish shippers are doing business on practically 
the same basis as before the war in regard to conditions of payment, 
it is more important to give attention to pre-war conditions than 
to the many stipulations with regard to payment that were dic- 
tated by abnormal conditions during the war. 

Before the war, the usual terms of payment in connection with 
the exportation of lumber were the following: Cash with order, less 
discount; open credit; cash against documents, less discount; draft 
at sight or at stated time after date of bill of lading. 

Only in case of shipments to new markets such as the Levant, 
and to unknown customers was cash required with order. It was 
customary to require an unknown purchaser to open a confirmed, 
irrevocable bank credit in favor of the exporter at one of the princi- 
pal financial centers in Europe, so that the exporter could obtain 
payment by drawing a draft against this credit, when the shipment 
had been made. 

The open credit was not used very often. 

By far the most common way of arranging for the payment of 
lumlDer for export was the drawing of drafts, either upon the im- 
porters direct or on the agent, who in turn coiild make special terms 
with the importers. The usual procedure was as follows: As soon 
as the ship was loaded, the exporter would draw a draft on the 
importer and, if the terms Avere cash, the draft was made payable at 
sight, less a stated discomit of 2 per cent or 2J per cent, as the case 
might be. Where credit was to be given, the draft was made pay- 
able three to four months from the date of the bill of lading. This 
draft was dra-wm in duplicate. The first of exchange, together with 
the shipping documents, was usually sent to the shipper's agent who 
sold the cargo and this agent immediately presented it to the im- 
porter for his acceptance: As soon as the draft was accepted it was 
retm-ned by the importer to the agent in exchange for shipping 
documents. If the cargo was sold f . o. b. Swedish port, the documents 
would be bill of lading indorsed in blank by the shipper, invoice, 
and specifications; and if sold c. i. f., insurance policy and charter 

Earty would also be included. Consular invoices also must sometimes 
e furnished by the shippers. 

When cargoes were sold on a c. i. f . basis, two drafts were generally 
drawn by the exporter, one payable at sight, covering freight and 
insurance, and the other at three to four months from date of bill 
of lading, covering the amount of the invoice for the lumber ship- 
ment alone. Only with the bill of lading in his possession would 
the importer be able to prove himself the rightful receiver of the 
cargo. The first of exchange, carrying the importer's acceptance, 
would then be kept by the agent and presented for collection on the 
date when the draft fell due. 



238 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

In case the exporter should want to discount the draft, he would 
sell the second of exchange to a local bank; the bank would then 
present the second of exchange at the agent's office and would 
obtain the first of exchange duly accepted. The bank would there- 
upon attend to the collection itself. The agents generally did not 
charge any commission for their service, while a bank made a small 
charge for cashing this document. In cases where shippers have 
advanced money to the captain on the freight, a sight draft is drawn 
for this amount. 

In some cases, the agent would guarantee the solvency of the 
customer to whom he had sold (del credere) and would receive a 
commission, usually one-half to 1 per cent, for such services. Through 
special arrangement the exporter in many cases could draw a draft 
on the agent for the amount of the invoice, less agent's commission, 
and the agent, in turn, would draw on the importer, with whom he 
could make special conditions in regard to terms of payment. Many 
of the large agencies abroad maintained banking departments, but 
other agencies of less financial resources would make arrangements 
with their banks to discount the drafts drawn by them on the im- 
porters. In this latter way, it was not necessary for the agents to 
operate with large capital. Many agents, however, practically 
financed the importers and in this way were enabled to effect many 
sales for the exporter in cases where the exporter himself would not 
be willing to give long credit. It is also certain that the agents who 
financed the importers in this way were often able to exercise an 
important influence on the importers known to make unjust claims. 

The terms of pajnnent vary considerably in the different countries. 
In dealings with the United Kingdom, the usual terms were cash, 3 
days after sight, less 2| per cent discount, or draft payable 4 months 
after date of bill of lading. Contracts made with British colonial 
markets usually called for payment in London, 3 dsijs after sight, 
less 2 J per cent discount. In some cases credit of 4 months after 
date of bill of lading was granted. The terms of contracts for ship- 
ments to France and Belgium were generally cash, less 2h per cent 
discount, or 10 days after sight, less 2 per cent, or draft payable 4 
months after date of bill of lading. Special conditions cover the 
German market. The usual terms of payment were cash 3 days 
after sight, less 2 per cent discount, or cash 10 days after date of bill 
of lading, less 2 per cent discount, or draft payable 3 to 4 months 
after date of bill of lading. The condition of payment for the Nether- 
lands and Denmark were generally drafts payable 3 to 4 months 
from date of bill of lading or cash, less 2 per cent discount. Spanish 
importers usually paid cash, less 2h per cent discount, or by draft 
payable in London, 4 months after date of bill of lading. In some 
cases, particularly in southern Spain, longer credits were granted. 
For the Levant and North Africa, the exporters usually demanded 
bankers' confirmed credit in London, less 2h per cent discount; or, 
in case of well-known customers, drafts were made payable 4 months 
after date of biU of lading. The Swedish Exporters' Association 
endeavors to have cash discount limited to 2 per cent for all conntries. 

It is easily seen that the agents of the Swedish shippers perform a 
very valuable service in the financing of the lumber export trade 
when the shippers themselves are unable to grant the necessar}^ 
credit. Many importers whose reputation and standing would be 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 239 

considered satisfactory might not be able to purchase an entire cargo 
if credit were not given. The agent also ascertains the financial 
standing of the importer before he makes a sale, even in cases where 
he does not assume any financial responsibility for his client. It 
must be noted, however, that the Swedish exporters always draw on 
their agents for the full amount of the invoice, less the agent's com- 
mission. To be able to draw for only a certain percentage of the 
invoice (not including agent's commission) would not be considered 
unless the exporter were notoriously unreliable, and no first-class 
agent would care to handle such business. The Swedish exporters 
operate on a financially strong basis and do not take on uncertain 
customers, and the agents also have the situation well in hand. 
Therefore the losses sustained by Swedish exporters on account of 
bad debts are almost negligible. 

In regard to payment m special cases when delivery is not accord- 
ing to contract, etc., see contract form on pages 223 to 225. 

The policy of the Swedish exporters in the near future will be to 
grant no credit to foreign importers. 

STANDARDS OF MEASURE. 

Although the metric system of measurement is compulsory by law, 
it is not universally used in Sweden in the lumber trade, because the 
most important markets for Swedish lumber employ the English 
system of measurement. In official statistics the metric measure- 
ment is used. There is no question that the metric measurement is 
far more adequate and scientific and there is a strong movement in 
Sweden to have it adopted universally in the lumber trade. 

The cubic meter is equal to 35.314 cubic feet and a cubic meter of 
sawn lumber is equal to 424 board feet. In the international lumber 
trade, Swedish lumber is sold by the Petrograd standard, which is 
equal to 165 cubic feet, 4.67 cubic meters, or 1,980 board feet. The 
above figures refer to rough lumber. In measuring planed lumber 
the actual sizes of the planed boards are increased by one-fourth of 
an inch in width and one-eighth of an inch in thickness ; this measure 
is called nominal measure and is made the basis of the measurements 
of the contents of planed boards. The planed lumber is also usually 
measured in Petrograd standards, but sometimes the measurements 
are given in square meters, square feet, etc. It must be noted, how- 
ever, that lumber less than 1 inch in thickness is alwa^^s figured at 
its actual measurement (adding I of an inch to the width and J of 
an inch to the thickness), and not by surface measure, as is the cus- 
tom in other countries. 

In regard to logs and hewn or sawn timber, the methods of measure- 
ment are very conflicting, some basing the measurement on top meas- 
urement and in other cases on the diameter of each log at the middle. 
The quantities are expressed in cubic feet, cubic meters, or Petro- 
grad standards. One Petrograd standard of hewn timber is equal to 
150 cubic feet. One Petrograd standard of round logs is equal to 120 
cubic feet if measured by caliper and 100 cubic feet if measured b}^ 
string. Pit props and split wood are usually measured by the cubic 
fathom, equal to 216 cubic feet. 



240 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 
RATES OF EXCHANGE. 

It was customary in the Swedish lumber export trade before the 
war to make quotations in foreign money. In selling to the United 
Kingdom and colonies and to some other countries quotations have 
usually been made in pounds sterling, to Germany in German marks, 
to France in francs, etc. This was possible before the war without any 
great risk caused by fluctuations in the rate of exchange, because the 
rates were fairly constant from one month to another. During the 
war the heavy fluctuations caused the Swedish lumber exporters to 
establish a fixed rate of exchange to which they all adhered. These 
fixed rates were as follows: £1 sterling, 18.20 crowns (par value, 18.16 
crowns); 100 francs, 72 crowns (par value, 72 crowns); 100 German 
marks, 89 crowns (par value, 88.89 crowns) ; 100 guilders, 150 crowns 
(par value, 150 crowns). By this procedure the Swedish exporters 
prevented any unforeseen losses through fluctuations in the rate of 
exchange and it did not make any diff'erence whether the quotations 
were in foreign or in Swedish money. The exporter always knew 
the exact amount that he would receive in Swedish money. This 
system is followed at the present time and will probably continue as 
long as the rate of exchange is abnormal in most of the importing 
countries. [In this report the par value of Swedish money has been 
used.l 

The following statement shows the fluctuation in the rate of ex- 
change of the Swedish crown from 1914 to 1919 on London, Paris, 
and New York. The rate on London is in crowns per pound sterling; 
on Paris, in crowns per 100 francs; and on New York, in crowns per 
dollar. 



Years. 


London. 


Paris. 


New York. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


Highest. 


Lowest. 


1914 


19.19 
19.43 
17.27 
16.16 
16.90 
18.08 


18.18 
16.97 
15.66 
12.02 
13.40 
16.56 


77.45 
77.60 
62.04 
58.28 
65.28 
65.33 


72.16 
61.64 
55.51 
44.18 
49.48 
48.48 


3.97 
4.05 
3.63 
3.414 
3.57 
4.10 


3.75 


1915 


3.60 


1916 


3.312 


1917 


2.548 


1918 


2.82 


1919 


3.49 







PRICES. 

The price level of lumber for export from Sweden fluctuated to 
some extent during the last 50 years before the war. The variations 
in prices have been especially noticeable after important wars, such 
as the Franco-Prussian War and the Boer War, etc. Shortly after 
the Franco-Prussian War Swedish lumber prices advanced about 
100 per cent. The price in 1874 covering rough and planed lumber 
was as high as S23 per 1,000 feet board measure. After that time 
there was a sharp decline and in 1879 the price came do\\Ti to about 
$13. A further decline was experienced in the following years, and 
in 1886 the ebb was reached with a price of $12 per 1,000 feet. After 
1886 the prices increased, with some interruptions, until 1913, and the 
price for this year, about $20, represented the highest shice 1875. In 
1914 the price level was somewhat lower, but during the war the 
prices increased and are at present about three times as high as the 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 241 

pre-war level. These abnormal prices must be attributed to the 
great demand for lumber in foreign countries, the limited supply 
from other exporting countries, and the high cost of stumpage and 
labor in Sweden. 

At present (November, 1919) prices have not shown any tendency 
to decline. On the contrary, one may expect higher prices in the 
future, as the demand will probably increase and it will take consid- 
erable time before Russia, which was the largest lumber-producing 
countr}^ in Europe, will be enabled to export such large quantities as 
it did before the war. Furthermore, competition among tlie northern 
European exporters has been regulated to some extent, and the im- 
porters may not count on playing one exporter against another, at 
least not in connection with exporters in northern Europe. 

Except on the west coast, it has not generally been the custom in 
Sweden to sell on a c. i. f. basis; that is, the mills have not generally 
undertaken delivery of the lumber at the port of destination and 
have not included charges for freight and insurance in their quota- 
tions. However, some mills have been in a better position than 
others to sell on a c. i. f . basis, as before the war a few mills in Sweden 
possessed their own tonnage. During the war several other Swed- 
ish mills either have acquired ships or have obtained a financial 
interest in shipping companies. It is believed that increased c. i. f . 
sales will be the consequence in the future and that more mills will 
have their own tonnage. 

BASIS OF PRICE QUOTATIONS. 

For many years it has been customary in Sweden to base quota- 
tions on the prices obtained by the district of Hernosand. The cor- 
responding prices for the other districts are figured by applying the 
customary dift'erence in prices between the different shipping dis- 
tricts and those of the Hernosand district. 

Before the war there were no absolutely fixed relations among the 
prices obtained by the different districts, but this question* was 
settled in 1918, when the Swedish lumber exporters through their 
association established fixed minimum prices for each district. The 
prices in different districts may fluctuate to some extent, as they are 
dependent largely upon freight rates. 

The following schedule gives the customary difference in thef. o. b. 
prices per 1,000 feet board measure between the principal shipping 
ports in Sweden and the Hernosand district, which is taken as the 
basis : 

Omskoldsvik $0.31 below basis. 

. Umea $0.92 below basis. 

Skelleftea and Pi tea $1.84 below basis. 

Lulea and Haparanda $2.46 below basis. 

Sundsvall $0.61 above basis. 

Hudiksvall and Soderhamn $1.23 above basis 

Gevle and Stockholm $1.54 above basis. 

Ports south of Stockholm $2.46 above basis.^ 

Goteborg Even up to $5 above basis. 

2 During winter season. 
2092°— 21 16 



242 SWEDISH LUMBEK INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

It is impossible to give any general statement as to the relative 
value of spruce and pine limiber. Spruce was formerly sold at a 
heavy discount, but later the difference in price between spruce and 
pine decreased materially, so that immediately before the war spruce 
was selling for approximately 10 per cent less than pine. This^ state- 
ment does not hold good for all dimensions; certain dimensions of 
spruce were sold at the same price as pine, while other dimensions 
were sold at a heavier discount than 10 per cent. During the war 
the production of spruce in Europe materially decreased and spruce 
has therefore advanced in price more than pine. The main reason 
for this spruce shortage was the lack of exports during the war from 
Russia, one of the world's sources for this material. Furthermore, 
the pulp factories consumed large quantities of spruce logs, because 
this species is more suitable for pulp than pine. At present spruce 
and pine are generally sold at the same price, but certain stocks of 
spruce may be sold at a premium. 

In the price scales covering the different dimensions considerable 
variations have been experienced in years past. Considering that 
Swedish exporters can furnish only limited jquantities of wide stock, 
such stocks have naturally been sold at a higher price than the stocks 
of which there is an ample supply, such as narrow boards. As the 
Swedish stock lists may contain as many as 600 different items, it is 
evident that a price scale must be used in order to enable the importers 
to estimate the cost of the different items without having special 
quotations for each. Before the war the price scales used in Sweden 
were not definitely fixed, as the demand from one year to another 
would vary considerably, and also the demand for certain stocks in 
the different countries. 

It was customary to select three or four of the principal dimensions, 
one for each of the following groups: Planks, battens (or scantlings), 
and boards (or narrow boards). The relative prices of these three 
groups were usually not fixed but the prices of the different dimensions 
of each group generally had a certain relation to each other. The 
usual basic dimensions for which quotations were made were as fol- 
lows: 3 by 9 inches, 2h by 7 inches, 2 by 4 inches, and 1 by 4^ inches; 
but other dimensions were sometimes given. 

During the war, with the fixing of minimum prices, the question 
of a definite price scale was also settled. Some variations have been 
made in the present schedules, compared with the pre-war schedules, 
particularly with respect to the value of planks and wide boards. 
Again, the decreased output of Russian stock, which contains a large 
percentage of wide sizes, has had its important influence on the market. 

It must be understood, however, that the scale of prices is not 
absolutely definite because the exporter may deviate at times from 
the rules laid down by the association. Such deviations are dictated 
by unusual conditions, such as specifications containing excess quan- 
tities of any one dimension of regular stock sizes, which would at 
times cause extra prices, or an order calling for a large quantity of 
undesirable stock, which the exporter may be forced to sell at a special 
discount in order to dispose of this material. Such cases, however, 
are referred to the association, if important. 

The question of grading enters into consideration in connection 
with the relative prices of shipments from different districts; but for 
practical purposes the grading of lumber in Sweden may be considered 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 243 

fairly uniform and it would require a detailed knowledge of conditions 
in the different districts to ascertain what effect the different systems 
of grading would have on the prices. In some cases the least satis- 
factory products may be sold at $1.23 to $1.84 per 1,000 feet below 
the prices obtained by the standard products in the same territory 
and in other cases the difference in price may be larger. Certain 
exporters have even been able to obtain $2.45 per 1,000 feet in excess 
of the prices obtained by other shippers in the same district, because 
their brands were well established in certain countries. 

Considering the different prices obtained by the various districts 
in Sweden, due consideration must be given to the question of freights 
and shipping facihties. For instance, the ports in northern Norrland, 
having only a short shipping season, must be somewhat rushed in dis- 
posing of their lumber, while the shippers on the west coast of Sweden 
can take their time in selling, because they are able to ship the year 
round. The same conditions apply to the shipping districts south of 
Stockholm. Although the Stockholm-Malmo district is usually 
known to have poorer-quality lumber in comparison with the Norr- 
land districts, the shippers in the Stockholm-Malmo district may 
obtain $0.61 to about $2.50 more than the shippers in the Norrland 
districts during the season when these latter shippers are unable to 
export their stock. During the summer months, however, the prices 
obtained by shippers in the Stockholm-Malmo district materially 
decrease on account of the competition with the shippers farther north. 
The lumber from the west-coast districts is sold at best advantage 
during the winter months. Lumber shipped from the port of Gote- 
borg usually obtains very high prices on account of the excellent 
shipping facilities which this port offers, having direct steamship 
connections with most of the foreign markets for Swedish lumber. 
Consequently the shippers in this port can make immediate dehveries 
and also ship in parcel lots. An increase of even $5 per 1,000 feet 
above the price obtained from the shippers in the Norrland districts 
is not unusual during the winter months on the west coast of Sweden' 
but these high prices refer only to the output of standard mills. The 
higher the freight rates the greater the difference in the price of 
lumber from the west coast and from the Norrland ports. 

The prices are usually quoted on an average-length basis; counting 
lumber 9 feet and up. Short lumber (6, 7, and 8 feet) is generally 
included in the cargo up to 5 per cent of the total quantity and is sold 
at two- thirds of the regular price. Sometimes 9, 10, and 11 foot 
lumber is sold separately, and this stock is usually sold at three- 
fourths of the regular price. If specified lengths are ordered, the 
S rices may be increased by $5 to $7.50 per 1,000 feet board measure. 
>rders from South Africa generally specify that no lumber less than 
10 feet lon^ shall be shipped and also that a certain percentage of the 
cargo shall consist of lumber at least 20 feet long. For lumber 
conforming to these specifications an extra charge of $5 to $7.50 per 
1,000 feet board measure is generally made. 

Rift-grain lumber is produced only by a few companies and in very 
limited quantities. One hundred per cent and more extra is charged 
for such stock. The same applies to heart specifications, for which 
there is no definite price schedule. If the exporter understands that 
the importer must have such stock, he may cnarge almost any price. 



244 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

It has been found unprofitable to cater to this trade, however, as 
many claims result from sales of such special stock. 

In cutting extra sizes and odd stock it is usually specified that the 
customer shall take either all grades or at least a certain percentage 
of the log run at a certain reduction. Contracts of this nature 
generally call for lumber of unsorted grade and the conditions gen- 
erally are that at least 20 to 25 per cent of the fifth grade must be 
taken at current prices. When quoting for odd sizes the mills ascer- 
tain from what log dimensions they must produce such lumber. 
They charge not only for extra handling but also for waste of material 
in sa\ving; for instance, if orders caU for stock 6f -inches wide, the prices 
would have to be based on 7-inch ^vidth, in addition to a charge of 
$1.23 to $1.84 per 1,000 feet, board measure, for extra handling. 

Some countries, especially Denmark and the Netherlands often 
specify many items containing only a few thousand feet each. Evi- 
dently making up such cargoes causes the exporters a great deal of 
trouble, and extra charges have usually been made, ranging from 
$1.23 to $2.46 per 1,000 feet for quantities less than 10,000 feet 
board measure of any one dimension shipped. 

PRICES AT HERNOSAND FROM 1910 TO 1919. 



The following statement gives the average prices from 1910 to 1918 
of some of the principal dimensions at first open water (f. o. w. ; 
lumber sold during the previous winter and autumn), f. o. b. Herno- 
sand. The prices are based on the usual average lengths. 



1910 
3 by 9 inch pine : Per M feet. 

First grade $41. 48 

Second grade 36. 56 

Tlurd grade 27. 34 

Fourth grade 24. 89 

Fifth grade 21.51 

3 by 9 inch spruce: 

First grade 25.88 

Second grade 24.32 

Third grade 22. 74 

Fourth grade 21. 17 

Fifth grade 19. 61 



2iby 7 inch pine, unsorted grade . . 
2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. 
2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 

Pine boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 

8-inch 

7-inch 

6-inch 

5-inch 

4^-inch 

4-inch 

Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 

8-inch 

7-inch 

6-inch 

5-inch 

4^-inch 

4-inch ,...-,. 



2L20 
19. 05 
17.20 

28.26 
23-35 
22.74 
2L51 
20.28 
19.97 
19.05 

21.63 
20.43 
19.83 
.19. 23 
18.63 
18.03 
17.43 



1911. 

3 by 9 inch pine: Per M feet. 

Fu-st grade $41. 48 

Second grade 36. 56 

Third grade 27. 34 

Fourth grade 24.89 

Fifth grade 21. 51 

3 by 9 inch spruce: 

First grade 25. 10 

Second grade 46. 84 

Third grade 21. 95 

Fourth grade 20. 39 

Fifth grade 18. 82 

2^by7inch pine, unsorted grade . . 21.20 

2J by 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

grade 19.36 

2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. 19. 05 

2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 17. 20 

Pine boards, unsorted gi-ade : 

9-inch 28.26 

8-inch 23.35 

7-inch 22. 74 

6-inch 21.51 

5-inch 20.28 

4Hnch 19.97 

4-inch 19.05 

Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch..... 21.63 

8-inch 20. 43 

7-inch 19.83 

6-inch 19.23 

5-inch 18.63 

4i-inch 18.03 

4-inch ..-,, 17.43 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 245 



]912. Per M feet. 

3 by 9 inch pine: 

First grade $38. 10 

Second grade 33. 18 

Third grade 24.42 

Fourth grade 21.96 

Fifth grade 19. 51 

3 by 9 inch spruce : 

First grade 23.93 

Second grade 22. 35 

Third grade 20. 78 

Fourth grade 19. 21 

Fifth grade 17.65 

2| by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade . 20. 28 

2| by 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

grade 18.74 

2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 18. 13 

2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade ■ 16. 59 
Pine boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 25.81 

8-inch 22.12 

7-inch 21.51 

6-inch 20.28 

5-inch 19.05 

4*-inch 18.74 

4-inch 17.82 

Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 21.23 

8-inch 19.03 

7-inch 19.83 

6-inch .\ 18.63 

5-inch 18.03 

4*-inch 17.43 

4-inch 16.83 

1913. 

3 by 9 inch pine: 

First grade 39. 02 

Second grade 34. 10 

Third grade 26.42 

Fourth grade 23. 96 

Fifth grade 21. 96 

3 bv 9 inch spruce: 

' First grade 27. 06 

Second grade 25. 49 

Third grade 23.93 

Fourth grade 22.35 

Fifth grade 20.78 

2h by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 21. 96 
2^ by 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

grade 20.58 

2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade . . 19. 66 
2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 18. 43 
Pine boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 28. 26 

8-inch 24. 58 

7-inch 23. 04 

6-inch 21.81 

5-inch 21.28 

41-inch 20.58 

4-inch 19.51 



Spruce boards, unsorted grade: Per M feet. 

9-inch $22.24 

8-inch 21.03 

7-inch 20. 73 

6-inch 20.13 

5-inch 19.53 

4i-inch 18.63 

1914. 

3 by 9 inch pine: 

First grade 39.02 

Second grade 34. 10 

Third grade 27.80 

Fourth grade 25. 35 

Fifth grade 22. 43 

3 by 9 inch spruce: 

■ First grade 29.02 

Second grade 27. 45 

Third grade 25.88 

Fourth grade 24. 32 

Fifth grade 22. 74 

2^ by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 23. 04 

2h by 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

Vade .*. 21. 51 

2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 20. 89 

2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade.. 19.36 
Pine boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 27.96 

8-inch 24.27 

7-inch 23.66 

6-inch 22.43 

Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch 23.44 

8-inch 22.24 

7-inch 21.33 

6-inch 20.73 

5-inch 20.13 

4i-inch 20.26 

4-inch 19.29 

Cull stock: 

2 inches and thicker 15. 67 

Less than 2 inches thick 14, 44 

1915. 

3 by 9 inch pine: 

' First grade 39. 33 

Second grade 35. 64 

Third grade 29. 49 

Fourth grade 27. 04 

Fifth grade 24. 58 

3 by 9 inch spruce: 

First grade 28. 23 

Second grade 26. 66 

Third grade 25.10 

Fourth grade 46. 84 

Fifth grade 21.95 

2h by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 25. 81 
2| bv 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

'grade 25. 19 

2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 22. 74 

2 by 4 incn spruce, unsorted grade 22. 12 



246 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, 



Pine boards, uneorted grade: P^r M feet. 

9-inch $28.55 

8-inch 27.34 

7-inch 26.44 

6-inch 25.19 

5-inch 24.64 

4Hnch 21.81 

4-inch 20.58 

Spruce boards, unsorted grade: 

9-inch : 28.26 

8-inch 26.11 

7-inch 25. 50 

6-inch 24.89 

5-inch 24.27 

4i-inch 21.20 

4-inch 19.97 

Cull stock : 

2 inches and thicker 17.82 

Less than 2 inches thick 15. 02 

1916. 
3 by 9 inch pine: 

First grade 43. 93 

Second grade 39. 02 

Third grade 38.10 

Fourth grade 35. 64 

Fifth grade 32.71 

3 by 9 inch spruce: 

First grade 40.80 

Second grade 39. 25 

Third grade 37. 85 

Fourth grade 36. 07 

Fifth grade 34. 40 

3 by 8 inch pine, unsorted grade. 34. 72 

3 by 8 inch spruce, unsorted grade 36. 56 

2^ by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 33. 64 
2J by 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

grade 35. 18 

2 by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 35. 02 

2 by 7 inch spruce, unsorted grade 35. 18 

2 by 6 inch pine, unsorted grade. 33. 80 

2 by 6 inch spruce, unsorted grade 34. 10 
2 by 5h, 5, 4^, and 4 inch pine, 

unsorted grade 32. 57 

2 by 5h and 5 inch spruce, un- 
sorted grade- 33. 80 

2 by 4i and 4 inch spruce, un- 
sorted grade 32. 71 

7-inch boards, pine, unsorted 

grade 34.72 



Per M feet. 
7-inch boards, spruce, unsorted 

^ade $35. 18 

4J-inch boards, pine, unsorted 

grade 29. 19 

4J-inch boards, spruce, unsorted 

grade 29. 19 

4-inch boards, pine, unsorted 

grade 28.26 

4-inch boards, spruce, unsorted 

grade 28.26 

Cull stock: 

2 inches and thicker 25.19 

Less than 2 inches thick 24. 58 

1917. 

3 by 9 inch pine, unsorted grade. . 39. 94 

3 by 9 inch spruce, unsorted grade 39. 94 

2^ by 7 inch pine, unsorted grade. 33. 80 
2| by 7 inch spruce, unsorted 

grade 35. 64 

2 by 4 inch pine, unsorted grade . . 33. 80 

2 by 4 inch spruce, unsorted grade 34. 41 
7-inch boards, pine, unsorted 

grade 35. 64 

7-inch boards, spruce, unsorted 

grade 35. 64 

4-inch boards, pine, unsorted 

grade 30. 11 

4-inch boards, spruce,' unsorted 

grade 30. 11 

Cull stock: 

2 inches and thicker 25. 87 

Less than 2 inches thick 25. 19 



1918. 

Pine and spruce, unsorted grade: 

9-inch planks and boards 

8-inch battens and boards — 
7-inch battens and boards. . . 
6-inch battens and boards. . . 
5-inch battens and boards. . . 
4^-inch battens and boards. . . 
4-inch battens and boards. . . 

Cull stock: 

6 inches and wider 

4-5^ inches wide 



45.16 
43.32 
41.78 
41.17 
40.55 
39.33 
37.79 

30.72 
28.88 



The following table gives the prices in 1919 per 1,000 feet board 
measure of different widths of pine and spruce planks, battens, 
scantlings, and boards, f. o. b. Hernosand, first open water: 



Widths. 


Planks, 

battens, 

scantlings. 


Boards. 

> 


Widths. 


Planks, 

battens, 

scantlings. 


Boards. 




Per Mfeet. 
$72. 51 
60.22 
57. 76 
57.14 
.■55. 30 


Per Mfeet. 
$73. 73 
61.45 
57.76 
. 57.14 
55.30 




Per M feel. 

$54. 07 
52.23 
52.23 
52.23 


Per Mfeet. 
S55.30 




5 ^ and 5 inches 


54.07 


8^ inches 


4h inches 


52.84 




4 inches 


52.23 


7 and 6i inches 











SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 247 

Cull stock 6 inches and more in width sold at S43.01 and less than 
6 inches wide, at $41.78 per 1,000 feet. 

OFFICIAL FIGURES FOR SPECIFIED DATES. 

The following table shows the official figures for prices f. o. b. 
Hernosand in January, 1912 to 1919, and in September, 1919, of 
various sizes and grades of pine and spruce: 



Months. 


3 by 9 
inch 
pine, 
third 
grade. 


lby4i 

inch 

pine, 

unsorted 

grade. 


2^ by 7 

inch 

spruce, 

unsorted 

grade. 


Months. 


3 by 9 
inch 
pine, 
third 
grade. 


lby4J 

inch 

pine, 

unsorted 

grade. 


2k bj; 7 

inch 

spruce, 

unsorted 

grade. 


January, 1912 

January, 1913 

January, 1914 

January, 1915 

January, 1916 


PerMfeet. 
$24.37 
26.33 
27.29 
28.26 
36.06 


Per Sr feel:. 
$18. 76 
20.23 
20.47 
20.71 
28.26 


PerMfeet. 
$18. 76 
19.98 
21.44 
23.39 
32.65 


January, 1917 

January, 1918 

January, 1919 

September, 1919 


PerMfeet. 

$47. 76 

45.81 

61.40 

66.28- 


PerMfeet. 

$38.01 

37.52 

54.09 

55.07 


PerMfeet. 

$43.37 

40.94 

56.53 

58. 48 



The following table shows the official figures for the average export 
prices of Swedish pine and spruce, rough and planed, from 1902 to 
1918: 





Pine. 


Spruce. 


Years. 


Rough 
stock. 


Planed 
stock. 


Rough 
stock. 


Planed 
stock. 


1902 . 


PerMfeet. 
$17. 74 

20. as 

17.17 
17.24 
19.50 
21.97 
18.52 
20.12 
21.70 
20.64 
18.97 
2a 30 
2a 97 
23. 55 
31.51 
40.23 
44.92 


PerMfeet. 
$19. 22 
20. 50 
19.22 
19.29 
21.03 
22.03 
19.27 
22.22 
23.65 
22.79 
21.31 
23.00 
22. 87 
24. 93 
32.78 
4a 22 
47.27 


PerMfeet. 
$13. 98 
15.86 
14.44 
14.75 
17.12 
18.09 
15.56 
17.33 
18.44 
17.72 
16. 95 
18.12 
2a 40 
22.94 
31.30 
38.52 
43.57 


PerMfeet. 
$17. 02 


1903 


19.23 


1904 


17.80 


1905 


17.81 


1906 


19.08 


1907 


20.52 


1908 


18.25 


1909 


20.38 


1910 


22.18 


1911 .' 


21.70 


1912 


2a 50 


1913 


22. 85 


1914 


23.37 


1915 


25.50 


1916 


33.09 


1917 


39.15 


1918 


47.27 







248 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The following table gives the average export values of lumber, 
planed and rough, for 1913, 1914, 1915, and 1916, according to 
Swedish export statistics: 



Kinds of wood. 



Planks: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Battens: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Scantlings: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Boards, 8| inches up: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Boards, 6 to 8§ inches wide: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Boards, less than 6 inches wide: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Planed boards, 8 J inches up: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Planed boards, 6 to 8J inches wide: 

Pine 

Spruce 

Planed boards less than 6 inches wide 

Pine 

Spruce 




1914 


1915 


Per M feet. 

S24. 15 

22.25 


Per M feet. 

S27. 45 
26.70 


20. 55 
20.60 


24. 15 
23.70 


19.80 
19.00 


23.75 
22.65 


23.65 
20.90 


25. 55 
23.80 


21.90 
20.40 


23.85 
22.90 


18.00 
17.70 


19.95 
19.85 


26.45 
28.10 


28.50 
30.30 


23.70 
23.50 


26.35 
26.40 


21.20 
21.85 


23.10 
23.35 



1916 



Per M feet. 

.'$36.00 

35. 75 

32.50 
32.35 

31.15 
30.75 

32.30 
31.95 

.30.00 
30.85 

26.05 
26.20 

34.80 
38.30 

34.70 
34.55 

30.85 
31.00 



REVIEW OF PRICES FROM 1870 TO 1901, 



For years previous to 1902, as far as 1870, an average annual 
figure for the export prices of both pine and spruce, planed and rough, 
has been supplied by the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association 
as follows : 



Per M feet. 

1870 $13.20 

1871 13.55 

1872 16.60 

1873 20.60 

1874 23.35 

1875 20.30 

1876 19.90 

1877 20.80 

1878 14.90 

1879 12.85 

1880 16.90 



Per M feet. 

1881 $16.70 

1882 16.70 

1883 14.60 

1884 14.50 

1885 14.15 

1886 1L90 

1887 13.25 

1888 14.20 

1889 14.90 

1890 13.78 

1891 13.35 



Per M feet. 

1892 $14.00 

1893 14.20 

1894 14.70 

1895 14.20 

1896 14.80 

1897 16. 05 

1898 16.65 

1899 15.50 

1900 16.90 

1901 16. 60 



The fluctuation in the pre-war prices of some of the principal 
dimensions for export is seen from figure 113, w^hich is published 
through the courtesy of the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association. 



PER POUND ^Te/fU/VG 

73. 00 'S- 

14. IS 
It. 10 
14.5 

14' 

13. IS 
13.10 
13. S 

12- 

12. IS 

h.io 

12.5 

iz- 

11. IS 
11.10 
II. s 

II- 

10 15 

lo.ia 




209a 



rt prices of Swedish lumber, 



DOU/TfiSP£^. POUND STCRLmS 



YEAR. 1864 -65 - 66 -67 




OOita/^5 P£ft PouNO ^re^uffG 

Ft£T B N 1 \P£A STANOfi^O 



VEAR lea* -65 -66 -67 -feS -69 1870 -71 -72 -73 -7+ -75 -76 -77 -78 ^9 1680 -ai -62 -to -84 -es -66 -©7 -flft -©9 1690 -9t -32 ''» "9* "M -96 -97 -9d -99 1900 -01 -^ -03 -04 -OS -06 -07 -Oft -09 1910 -II -U -IJ 

I II 3'x9' spruce _ aver^ije 1st 2nd, jrc/anc/^fh frac/es 

1 _-_^. 2'h' X 7'ptne 3rc/ gr^de 

exPlflNflTION I ^.,^.^ rsp.uce.unso.fedgr^d^ 

I I'x *f '^'pine, unsof fed grade 

\_ r X't'/i spruce, unsoried gr^de 

I rw. lf».— Export prlMA of !)iT«(1Ub lomhcr, fr 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 249 



PRICES AT CENTRAL NORRLAND PORTS. 

The following table gives average export prices per 1,000 feet board 
measure, f.o.b. central Norrland ports, for various dimensions and 
grades of pine and spruce from 1914 to 1919: 



Dimensions. 


Grades. 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


1919 


3 by 9 inches: 

Pine 


Third 


$27.80 

26.73 

23.04 
21.50 

20.73 
20.28 


$29.49 

25.95 

25.80 
25.19 

21.81 
21.20 


$38. 10 

38.55 

33.64 
35.17 

29.19 
29.19 


$39. 94 

39.94 

33.80 
35.64 

30.72 
30.72 


$45. 16 

45.16 

41.78 
41.78 

39.33 
39.33 


$60. 22 


Spruce 


Average first, 
second, 
third, and 
fourth 

Unsorted 

do 




2^ by 7 inches: 

Pine 


60.22 
55.30 




55.30 


1 by U inches: 

Pine 


do 


52.23 


Spruce 


do 


52.23 









The following table shows the quotations in the autumn of 1919 
for different dimensions and grades of rough pine and spruce lumber, 
f.o.b. central Norrland ports, for shipment to the Netherlands and 
Germany : 





Planks, battens, 
and scantUngs. 


Boards. 


Widths. 


Un- 
sorted 
grade. 


Fifth 
grade. 


Un- 
sorted 
grade. 


Fifth 
grade. 


11 inches 


PerMfeet. 
$78. 52 
74.50 
70.48 
67.80 
67.00 
64.85 
64.32 
64.05 
63.52 
62.18 
61.64 
60.84 


PerMfeet. 
$68. 34 
64.85 
64.85 
63.52 
63.52 
61.64 
60. 84 
60.57 
60.30 
58.96 
58.16 
57.62 


PerMfeet. 
$82. 00 
77.18 
73.16 
69.14 
68.34 
65.66 
64.85 
64.59 
64.32 
62.18 
61.64 
58.96 


PerMfeet. 
$68 34 


10 inches 


64 85 


9 inches 


64 85 


Sh inches 


63 52 


8 inches 


63 52 


7 and 6J inches 


61 64 


6inches 


60 84 


5i inches . . 


60 57 


5 inches 


60 30 


4-i inches 


58 16 


4 inches 


57 62 


34 and 3 inches 


64 94 







For 1| and | inch lumber by 3 to 11 inches, there was an additional 
charge of $2.04 per 1,000 feet board measure; and for three-fourths 
and five-eighths inch lumber by 6 inches and more, an additional 
charge of $1.35. 

Following are quotations in the autumn of 1919 for different 
dimensions and grades of lumber, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, for 
shipment to South Africa, Australia, and British India: 3, 2|, and 
2 by 9^ inches, unsorted or third grade (pine or spruce), $78.65 per 



1,000 feet board measure; 3, 2|, and 2 by 9 inches, fourth grade, 



.19 ; 3, 21, and 2 by 9 inches, fifth grade, $73.73. These prices are 
based on an average length of 16 to 17 feet; there is an additional 
charge of $2.46 per 1,000 feet if the average length is 17 to 18 feet, 
and of $4.92 per 1,000 feet if the average length is 18 to 19 feet. If the 
average length is 15 to 16 feet, the price is $1.23 per 1,000 feet less 



250 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

than the 16-17-foot basis. For a 15-foot average length the price 
was $66.36 per 1,000 feet for the following dimensions: 3, 24, and 2 by 
7 inches; 3, 2|, and 2 by 6 inches; 1^ by 6 inches; 3 by 5^ inches; 3 b}^ 
5 inches ; 3 by 4^ inches ; 1^ by 4^ inches ; 2^ by 3 inches ; 2 by 3 inches. 
If 14 to 15 feet is the average length, the price is $1.23 less per 1,000 
feet. 

The prices for planed lumber are based on the dimensions of rough 
stock from which the planed lumber is manufactured; for instance, 
planed lumber having an actual measurement of | by 3f inches 
would be priced as 1 by 4 inches. The fixed charges for planing 
would be added to the prices for rough stock. Before the war these 
fixed charges for planing were $1.84 to $2.46 per 1,000 feet board 
measure and during the war about $3.69 to $4.90. 

Wlien prices are quoted, the basis is made 1 by 7 inches plain edge 
(surfaced four sides), and extra charges are made for planing to dif- 
ferent patterns. These extra charges for planing will no doubt be 
raised in the near future to correspond with revised price lists issued in 
Norway. 

Planed lumber of pine or spruce (ceilings, including bundling with 
wire) was quoted as follows in the autumn of 1919, f. o. b. central 
Norrland ports, for shipment to South Africa: 6^ inch, tongued and 
grooved, colonial first grade, $71.28 per 1,000 feet board measure; 
6^-inch tongued, grooved, and beaded, colonial first grade, $74.96. 
Colonial third is $2.46 per 1,000 feet less than colonial first grade, 
and unsorted grade is $0.61 per 1,000 feet less than colonial first 
grade. These prices are based on an average length of 15 to 16 feet. 
For an average of 16 to 17 feet, $2.46 is added to the basis and for an 
average of 14 to 15 feet, the price is $1.23 less than the basis. Five- 
inch stock is $1.23 less than 6^-inch stock. 

The same prices apply to Australia and British India, but third 
grade is generally sold to Australia at $1.84 less than colonial first 
grade. The extra charges for planing are the same as those for the 
United Kingdom, but |-inch stock commands $1.84 per 1,000 feet 
board measure extra for South Africa. For Australia the following 
extra charges apply: |-inch stock, $1.23 extra per 1,000 feet board 
measure; f-inch stock and weatherboards, $2.46 extra; |-inch stock, 
$3.69 extra; chamfered weatherboards, $3.07 extra. 

Following are the prices of planed lumber (tongued-and-grooved 
stock), in the autumn of 1919, f. o. b. central Norrland ports, for 
shipment to the Netherlands and Germany: 11 inches wide, $85.26 
per 1,000 feet board measure; 10 inches, $78.50; 9 inches, $74.44; 8^ 
mches, $71.73; 8 inches, $71.05; 7 and 6^- inches, $69.02; 6 inches, 
$68.35; 5^ inches, $68.01 ; 5 inches, $67.67; 4^ inches, $66.32; 4 inches, 
$65.64; and S^ and 3 inches, $64.96. Extra charges are made as 
follows: |-inch stock, $0.68 extra per 1,000 feet; |-mch stock guaran- 
teed to measure 18 millimeters, $2.04 extra; 1-inch stock guaranteed 
to measure 24 millimeters, $1.35 extra; f-inch stock, $1.35 extra; 
^-inch stock, $2.70 extra. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 251 



Following are the charges for resawing rough stock and for bundling 
lumber : 



PerM 
feet. 



For bundling: 

Sawn and planed lumber— 

With string $2. 46 

With wire L 23 

Staves — 

Withbtring 4.30 

With wire 3.07 



For resawing: Per M 

Stock 6 inches and wider — feet. 

1 cut $2. 46 

2 cuts 3.07 

Scuts 3.69 

4 cuts 4.30 

Stock 5^ inches and less — 

Icut 3.07 

2 cuts 3.60 

Scuts 4.30 

4 cuts 4.92 

Split wood (mill ends) is usually classified into first and second 
grades. Prices for split wood are quoted for three groups: (1) Planks 
and battens, (2) boards 6 inches and wider, and scantlings; and (3) 
narrow boards less than 6 inches wide. The difference in price be- 
tween groups is approximately $2.86 per cubic fathom (216 cubic 
feet). First grade is sold at $9.65 per cubic fathom higher than the 
second grade. The prices before the war were approximately $20 
for first grade of the first group. During 1918 and 1919 the cor- 
responding price was about $60 per cubic fathom. 

Cement staves vary in price according to dimensions. The average 
price for cement staves during the period 1918 to 1919 was approxi- 
mately $40 to $45 per 1,000 feet board measure. 



PRICES IN LOWER-GULF DISTRICT. 



The following table shows the prices per 1,000 feet board measure 
of third-quality pine and unsorted-quality spruce, in some of the 
principal dimensions, for export from the lower-gulf district, from 
1889 to 1913: 



Years. 



Third-quality pine. 



3 by 9 in. 



2iby 7in. 



1 by 6 in 



1 by 4 in. 



Unsorted-quality spruce. 



3 by 9 in. 



2iby7in 



1 by 6 in. 



1 by 4 in. 



1889 
1890 
1891, 
1892 
1893 
1894, 
1895 
1896. 
1897 
1898, 
1899. 
1900, 
1901, 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 
1905. 
1906, 
1907, 
1908, 
1909, 
1910, 
1911, 
1912, 
1913. 



$20. 28 
18.43 
16.90 
18.43 
19.36 
19.36 
17.51 
18.43 
19.97 
20.89 
22.43 
26.42 
27.04 
27.34 
29.19 
25.81 
21.81 
22.74 
23.35 
22.43 
24.58 
27.34 
25.81 
24.89 
26.42 



$16.90 
14.13 
12.90 
13.52 
13.83 
14.44 
14.44 
15.36 
16.90 
18.13 
18.74 
19.97 
18.74 
19.36 
20.28 
19.36 
18.74 
20.58 
21.51 
19.97 
20.58 
21.81 
20.89 
20.89 
22.43 



$15. 05 
12.90 
11.36 
12.29 
12.60 
12.90 
12.90 
13.83 
15.67 
16.90 
17.82 
19.05 
17.51 
17.51 
18.43 
17.51 
17.20 
19.66 
20.58 
19.05 
19.66 
21.20 
19.97 
20.28 
21.81 



$12. 29 

8.29 

7.37 

8.60 

8.91 

8.91 

9.82 

11.36 

13.21 

14.44 

14.13 

15.36 

12.60 

12.90 

14.13 

14.44 

14.75 

17.20 

18.74 

16.59 

17.82 

18.74 

18.13 

18.13 

19.05 



$16.28 
14.75 
13.83 
15.36 
15.67 
15.36 
14.75 
15.98 
17.20 
16.59 
17.51 
20.58 
20.58 
20.89 
19.66 
18.43 
18.74 
21.20 
21.20 
20.89 
22.74 
23.66 
22.74 
22.12 
24.58 



$13. 52 
11.97 
11.05 
11.36 
11.97 
12.60 
12.90 
13.83 
15.67 
15.67 
15.36 
16.90 
15.98 
16.59 
17.51 
16.28 
14.13 
18.74 
18.43 
16.59 
19. 05 
19.66 
19.05 
19.36 
20.28 



$13. 21 
11.36 
10.44 
10.75 
11.36 
11.97 
12.29 
13.52 
15.36 
15.05 
14.75 
16.59 
15.36 
16.28 
18.13 
15.67 
16.28 
18.13 
18.13 
16.90 
18.74 
19.36 
18.43 
18.74 
20.28 



$10.75 

7.68 

7.68 

8.29 

7.68 

8.29 

8.60 

10.75 

13.21 

11.67 

11.36 

13.21 

10. 75 

11.97 

13.83 

13.21 

13.83 

16.28 

16.59 

15.05 

16.59 

17.51 

16.28 

16.90 

18.43 



252 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



The following quotations per 1 ,000 feet board measure are repre- 
sentative of standard shipments from the lower-gulf shipping ports 
in April, 1913: 



Dimensions. 



4 by 11 inches 

4 by 9 inches 

3 by 11 inches 

3 by 9 inches 

3 by 8J inches 

3 by 8 inches 

3 by 7 inches 

3 by 6i inches 

3 by 6 inches 

3 by Scinches 

3 by 5 inches 

3 by 4| inches 

3 by 4 inches 

2h by 11 inches 

2i by 9 inches 

2| by 8 inches 

2| bv 7 inches 

2A by 6* inches 

2J by 6 inches 

2J by 5^ inches 

2| by 5 inches 

2| by 4% inches 

2| by 4mches 

2 by 11 inches 

2 by 9 inches 

2 by 8 inches 

2 by 7 inches 

2 by 6 inches 

2 by 5i and 5 inches. 

2 by 44 inches 

2 by 4mches 

Boards: 

11 inches 

9 inches 

8 inches 

7 inches 

6§ inches 

6lnches 

5 J inches 

Slnches 

4 J- inches 

4 inches 

3i inches 

3 inches 



Pine. 



First 
grade. 



$44. 24 
43.01 
44.24 
41.78 



31.95 
31.34 
30.72 
30.11 



44.24 
41.78 
31.95 
31.34 
30.72 
30.11 



44.24 
41.78 
31.95 
31.34 
30.11 



I Unsorted grade. 



Second 
grade. 



S39.33 
38.10 
39.33 
36.87 



27.04 
26.42 
25.81 
25.19 



39.33 

36.87 
27.04 
26.42 
25.81 
25.19 



39.33 
36.87 
27.04 
26.42 
25.19 



52.84 
50.39 
41.78 
39.33 
38.10 
38.10 
.37.48 
37. 48 
35. 64 
34.72 



47.93 
45.47 
36.87 
34.41 
33.18 
33.18 
32.57 
32.57 
30.72 
29.80 



Third 
grade. 



$30. 72 
28.20 
30.72 
27.65 



23.96 
23.35 
22.12 
21.51 



30.72 
27.65 
23.96 
23.35 
22.12 
22.12 



30.72 
27.65 
23. 96 
23.35 
22.12 



31.34 
30.72 
25.81 
23.96 
22.74 
22.74 
22.12 
22.12 
20.89 
19.97 



Fourth 
grade. 

$25719" 
25.19 
25.19 
25.19 



22.12 
21.51 
20.28 
19. 66 



Pine. 



$29. 49 
28.26 
29.49 
27.65 



25.19 
25.19 
22.12 
21.51 
20.28 
20.28 



25.19 
25.19 
22.12 
21.51 
20.28 



25.81 
25.81 
23.34 
22.12 
20.89 
20.89 
20.28 
20.28 
19.05 
18.13 



23.96 
23.35 
22.12 
22.12 
23.35 
23.35 
23.35 
19.66 
29.49 
27.65 
23.96 
23.35 
22.12 
22.12 
20.28 
20.28 
19.05 
19.66 
29.49 
27.65 
23.96 
23.35 
22.12 
20.28 
19.05 
19.66 

31.64 
31.03 
26.11 
24.27 
23.04 
23.04 
22.12 
22.12 
20.89 
19.97 
18.74 
18.74 



Spruce. 



$28. 88 
25.81 
28.88 
25.19 
23.66 
21.51 
20.89 
20. 58 
20.58 



28.88 
25.19 
21.51 
20.89 
20.58 
20.58 
19.66 
19. 66 



28.88 
25.19 
21.51 
20.89 
20.58 
19.66 
19.66 
19.04 



25.81 
22.12 
21.51 
20.89 
20.89 
20.28 
20.28 
19.36 
19.36 
18.74 
18.74 



For fifth-grade pine and spruce the prices received, f. o. b., lower- 
gulf shipping ports, in April, 1913, were less than those for the un- 
sorted grade by the following amounts: Planks, $4.30 to $4.92 less; 
battens and boards, $2.46 to $3.07; and discolored lumber, $2.46 to 
$3.07. 

The table following shows the quotations in the autumn of 1919 
for rough lumber of pine and spruce, f. o. b. lower-gulf shipping 
ports, for delivery in the United Kingdom in the spring of 1920. 
The same prices applied to France, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and 
the Mediterranean countries. 





Planks, battens, 
and scantlings. 


Boards. 


Widths. 


Unsorted 

and third 

grade. 


Fifth 
grade. 


Unsorted 

and third 

grade. 


Fifth 
grade. 




Per Mft. 
$86. 02 
73.73 
71.28 
70. ti6 
68.82 
67. 59 
66. 36 
66. 36 
66. 36 
66.36 


Per Mft. 
$71.28 
68. 82 
66. 98 
66. 98 
65. 13 
63. 90 
62. 67 
62. 67 
62. 67 
62.67 


Per M ft. 
$88.48 
76.19 
72.51 
71.89 
70.05 
68. 82 
67.59 
66.36 
65.75 
63.29 


I'cr Mft. 
.S71.28 


10 and 9 inches 


68.82 


8J inches 


66. 98 


8 inches 


66.98 


7 and 6J inches 


65. 13 




63.90 


5J and 5 inches '. 


62. 67 




61.45 




60.83 


3^ and 3 inches 


78.35 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 253 



The relative prices of other grades and dimensions than those 
given in the table were as follows : For | inch and f inch by 6 inches 
and wider, unsorted grade, $1.23 per 1,000 feet higher than boards, 
unsorted grade; for first-o'rade planks and battens, $9.83 higher 
than for third grade; for first-grade boards, $12.29 higher than for 
third grade; for second-grade planks and battens, $4.91 higher than 
for third grade; for second-grade boards, $7.37 higher than for third 
grade; for fourth-grade 12 and 11 inch planks, $4.91 lower than for 
third grade; for fourth-grade 12 and 11 inch boards, $8.60 lower 
than for third grade; for fourth-grade 10 and 9 inch planks, $2.46 
lower than for third grade; for 10 and 9 inch boards, $4.91 lower 
than for third grade; and for all other dimensions, $1.84 lower than 
for third grade. 

Tlie following table shows quotations in the summer of 1919 on 
different dimensions and grades of rough lumber of pine and spruce, 
f. o. b. lower-gulf ports, for shipment to Denmark: 



Widths. 


First 
grade. 


Second 
grade. 


Third and 
unsorted 
grades. 


Fourth 
grade. 


Fifth 
grade. 


12 inches . 


Per Mft. 
$105.08 
100.16 
95.24 
85.41 
78.04 
76.19 
75.58 
74.96 
74.35 
73.12 
71.89 
70.66 


Per Mft. 
$100.16 
95.24 
90.33 
80.49 
73.12 
71.28 
70.66 
70.05 
69.43 
68.20 
66.98 
65.75 


Per Mft. 
$90.33 
85.41 
80.49 
73.12 
65.75 
63.90 
63.29 
62.67 
62.06 
60.83 
59.60 
58.37 


Per Mft. 
886.61 
81.72 
76.81 
70.66 
63.90 
62.06 
61.45 
60.83 
60.22 
58.99 
57.76 
56.53 


Per Mft. 
$66.98 


11 inches 


66.98 


10 inches ... . . ... 


65.75 


9 inches 


65.75 


8 inches 


62.06 


7 inches ... . . 


60.22 


6i and 6 inches 


59.60 


5i inches .... .... 


58.99 


5 inches 


58.37 


4J inches 


55.92 




54.69 


3i and 3 inches 


53.46 







For planed lumber the following additional charges were made: 
Tongued, grooved, and beaded stock (t. g. b.), \\ and 1 inch thick, 
$3.69 for planing charges added to price of rough stock; for t. g. b. 
stock, three-fourths and five-eighths mch thick, $4.30 planing 
charges added to price of rough stock. 

The following table shows the prices per 1,000 feet nominal measure 
of planed lumber (pine or spruce, surfaced on four sides), in the 
autumn of 1919, f. o. b. lower-gulf port, for shipment to the United 
Kingdom. These prices also apply to France, Belgium, Spain, 
Portugal, and the Mediterranean countries. 



Widths. 


First 
grade. 


Unsorted 

and 
second 
grade. 


Third 
grade. 


Fourth 
grade. 


11 inches 


$92.17 

79.88 
68.82 
68.20 
67.59 
66.98 


$87.25 
74.96 
65.13 
64.52 
63.90 
63.29 


$83.52 
71.28 
62.67 
62.06 
61.45 
60.83 


$79.88 


9 inches 


67.59 


7 and 6i inches 


60.22 


6 inches 


59.60 


5i and 5 inches 


58.99 


4 J and 4 inches 


58.37 







The following extra charges are made per 1,000 board feet nomi- 
nal measure: For tongued and grooved (t. g.), tongued, grooved, and 
beaded (t. g. b.), tongued, grooved, and V-jointed (t. g. v.), and 



254 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

rebated and V-jointed (r. v.) stock, $0.61; t. g. b., t. g. v., and r. v., 
two sides, $1.23; three-fourths-inch stock, $0.61 ; five-eighths-inch 
stock, $1,23; one-half-inch stock, $2.46; and weatherboards, $2.46. 



PRICES IN LOCAL MARKETS. 

The local markets in Sweden are supplied chiefly by a number of 
small interior mills ; the export mills do not generally engage in this 
busmess. Occasionally, however, the export mills may dispose of 
part of their cull stock in the local markets. Sweden consumes most 
of the cull lumber locally, while the better grades of construction 
lumber are exported to foreign countries. 

The prices in the local market in Sweden for cull stock are usually 
higher than the prices for unsorted construction lumber abroad, 
because the domestic markets consume relatively small quantities, 
while the export lumber trade is carried on in cargo lots. 

The usual dimensions required in the local markets m Sweden are 
as follows, for both pine and spruce: 3 by 9, 8, 7, and 6 inches; 2h 
by 9 and 7 inches; 2 by 9, 8, 7, 6, and 5 inches; 1 and 1^ by 9, 8, 
7, 6i, 6, 5i, 5, 44, and 4 inches; f by 7, 6^, 6, 5|, 5, 4J, and 4 inches. 
A limited quantity of one-half inch boards is in demand. In 
planed lumber the sizes required are f, 1, and Ih inches by 7, 6^, 6, 
5h, 5, ih, and 4 inches. 

During the winter of 1919 the following prices were quoted in 
Stockholm, the largest local market in Sweden: 



Per M feet. 

3 by 9 inches $66. 64 

3 by 8 inches 61. 64 

3 by 7 inches 59. 14 

3 by 6 inches 58. 31 

2^ by 9 inches 66. 64 

2I by 7 inches 59. 14 

2 by 9 inches 66. 64 

2 by 8 inches 61. 64 

2 by 7 inches 59. 14 

2 by 6 inches 58. 31 

2 by 5 inches 55. 81 

1^ by 9 inches 66. 64 

l| by 8 inches 61. 64 

1^ by 7 inches 59. 14 



Per M feet. 

li by 6* inches $58. 31 

li by 6 inches 58. 31 

1^ by 5^ inches 55. 81 

1^ by 5 inches 55. 81 

l| by 4i inches 55. 81 

1^ by 4 inches 55. 81 

1 by 9 inches 69. 14 

1 bv 8 inches 63. 31 

1 by 7 inches 61. 64 

1 by 6^ inches 59. 14 

1 by 5| inches 56. 64 

1 by 5 inches 56. 64 

1 by 4^ inches 55. 81 

1 by 4 inches 55. 81 



Three-quarter inch stock is $1.08 higher than 7-inch boards and 
one-half inch stock is $2.25 higher than 7-inch boards. 

The foregoing prices refer to gang-sawn lumber. If the lumber is 
sawn on circular saws, the prices are $1.08 less per 1,000 feet. The 
prices for pine and spruce are now the same. Previous to the war 
spruce was sold at approximately $2.25 less than pine. The planing 
charges are based on $6.66 per 1,000 feet board measure for 1-inch 
boards. For f-inch boards the charge is $7.83 and for ^-inch boards 
$10. The average length of rough stock, planks, and battens is 
about 14 feet and of rough and planed boards 13 feet. The prices 
refer to a grade corresponding to fourth grade for export, but also 
containing a certain percentage of fifth-grade stock. Fifth-grade 
stock containing a small percentage of sixth grade is sold at $2.25 
discount. Cull stock, sixth grade and poorer, is sold at about $50 
per 1,000 feet for all sizes. These prices represent an advance of 
approximately 100 per cent over the prices ruling before the war. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AXD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 255 

Considerable quantities of torrac pine are used in the construction 
of houses in Sweden, 

PRICE-CONVERSION TABLE. 

Price quotations are so often given in pounds sterHng per standard 
that the following conversion table from pounds per standard to 
United States currency per 1,000 feet board measure \\dll be found 
convenient : 



Table to Convert Pounds Sterling per Petrogead Standard, Sawn and 
Planed Lumber, to Dollars per M Feet Board Measure (1 Petrograd 
Standard =1,980 Board Feet; £1=$4.8665). 







U. S. 






U. S. 






IT. S. 






U. S. 






U.S. 


sterling. 


cur- 


Sterling. 


cur- 


Sterlin 


g. cur- 


Sterling. 


cur- 


Sterling. 


cur- 






rency. 






rency. 






rency. 






rency. 






rency. 


i 

£ s. 


d. 


Dollars. 


£ s. 


d. 


Dollars. 


£ 


s. 


d. 


Dollars. 


£ s. 


d. 


Dollars. 


£ s. 


d. 


Dollars. 


5 





12.2891 


11 





27.0361 


17 








41. 7830 


23 





56.5300 


29 





71.2770 


5 2 


6 


12.5962 


11 2 


6 


27.3432 


17 


2 


6 


42.0901 


23 2 


6 


56. .8371 


29 2 


6 


71..5S41 


5 5 





12.9037 


11 5 





27. 6507 


17 


5 





42.3976 


23 5 





57.1446 


29 5 





71.8916 


5 7 


6 


13.2108 


11 7 


6 


27.9578 


17 


7 


6 


42. 7047 


23 7 


6 


57.4517 


29 7 


6 


72. 1987 


5 10 





13.5178 


11 10 





28. 2648 


17 


10 





43.0117 


23 10 





57. 7581 


29 10 





72. .5057 


5 12 


6 


13.8254 


11 12 


6 ! 2.8. .5724 


17 


12 


6 


43.3193 I 


23 12 


6 


58. 0663 


29 12 


6 


72.8133 


5 15 





14. 1325 


11 15 


28.S795 


17 


15 





43.6264 


23 15 





58.3734 


29 15 





73. 1204 


5 17 


6 


14. 4396 


11 17 


6 29. 1866 


17 


17 


6 


43.9335 


23 17 


6 


58. 6805 


29 17 


6 


73.4275 


6 





14. 7469 


12 


29.49.39 


18 








44.2409 


24 





58.9878 


30 





73. 7348 


6 2 


6 


15.0540 


12 2 


6 29. 8010 


18 


2 


6 


44.5480 


24 2 


6 


59 2949 


30 2 


6 


74.0119 


6 5 





15.3615 


12 5 


30. 1085 


IS 


5 





44. 8555 


24 5 





59.0024 


30 5 





74.3494 1 


6 7 


6 


15. 6686 


12 7 


6 


30.4156 


18 


7 


6 


45. 1626 


24 7 


6 


59.9095 


30 7 


6 


74.6565 


6 10 





15.9756 


12 10 





30. 7226 


18 


10 





45.4696 


24 10 





60. 2165 


30 10 





74.9635 


6 12 


6 


16.2832 


12 12 


6 


31.0302 


18 


12 


6 


45. 7772 


24 12 


6 


60.5241 


30 12 


6 


75. 2711 


6 15 





16. 5903 


12 15 





31.3373 


18 


15 





46.0843 


24 15 





60.8312 


30 15 





75.5782 


; 6 17 


6 


16.8974 


12 17 


6 


31.6444 


IS 


17 


6 


46.3914 


24 17 


6 


61.1383 


30 17 


6 


75. 8853 


7 





17.2048 


13 





31.9517 


19 








46.6987 


25 





61.4457 


31 





76. 1926 


7 2 


6 


17.5119 


13 2 


6 


32. 2588 


19 


2 


6 


47.0058 


25 2 


6 


61.7528 


31 2 


6 


76.4997 


7 5 





17.8194 


13 5 





32.5663 


19 


5 





47.3133 


25 5 





62.0603 


31 5 





76.8072 


7 7 


6 


18. 1265 


13 7 


6 


32.8734 


19 


7 


6 


47.6204 


25 7 


6 


62.3674 


31 7 


6 


77.1143 


7 10 





18.4335 


13 10 


33. 1804 


19 


10 





47. 9274 


25 10 





62. 6744 


31 10 





77.4213 


7 12 


6 


18. 7411 


13 12 


6 ! 33.4SS0 


19 


12 


6 


48.2350 


25 12 


6 


62.9820 


31 12 


6 


77. 7289 


7 15 





19.0482 


13 15 


33. 7951 


19 


15 





48.5421 


25 15 





63. 2891 


31 15 





78.0360 


7 17 


6 


19.3553 


13 17 


6 


34. 1022 


19 


17 


6 


48. 8492 


25 17 


6 


63. 5962 


31 17 


6 


78.3431 


8 





19.6626 


14 





34.4096 


20 








49. 1565 


26 





63.9035 


32 





78. 6505 


8 2 


6 


19.9697 1 


14 2 


6 


34. 7167 


20 


2 


6 


49.4636 


26 2 


6 


64. 2106 


32 2 


6 


78.9576 


8 5 





20.2772 ! 


14 5 





35.0242 


20 


5 





49. 7711 


26 5 





64.5181 


32 5 





79.2651 


8 7 


6 


20.5843 j 


14 7 


6 


35.3313 1 


20 


7 


6 


50.0782 


26 7 


6 


64.8252 


32 7 


6 


79. 5722 


8 10 





20.8913 ' 


14 10 





35.6383 1 


20 


10 





50.3852 


26 10 





65. 1322 


32 10 





79.8792 


8 12 


6 


21.1989 ! 


14 12 


6 


35.9459 


20 


12 


6 


50.6928 


26 12 


6 


65.4398 


32 12 


6 


80. 1868 


8 15 





21.5060 


14 15 





36.2530 


20 


15 





50.9999 


26 15 





65. 7469 


32 15 





80.4939 


8 17 


6 


21.8131 


14 17 


6 


36.5601 


20 


17 


6 


51.3070 


26 17 


6 


66.0540 


32 17 


6 


80. 8010 


9 





22. 1204 


15 





36.8674 


21 








51.6143 


27 





66.3613 


33 





81. 1083 


9 2 


6 


22.4275 


15 2 


6 


37. 1745 


21 


2 


6 


51.9214 


27 2 


6 


66. 6684 


33 2 


6 


81.4154 


9 5 





22. 7350 


15 5 





37.4820 


21 


5 





52.2289 


27 5 





66.9759 


33 5 





81. 7229 


9 7 


6 


23.0421 


15 7 


6 


37. 7891 


21 


7 


e. 


52. 5360 


27 7 


6 


67. 2830 


33 7 


6 


82.0300 


9 10 





23.. 3491 


15 10 





38.0961 


21 


10 





52.8430 


27 10 





67.5900 


33 10 





82.3370 


9 12 


6 


23.6567 1 


15 12 


6 


38.4037 


21 


12 


6 


53. 1506 


27 12 


6 


67.8976 


33 12 


6 


82. 6446 


9 15 





23.9638 1 


15 15 





38. 7108 


21 


15 





53.4577 


27 15 





68.2047 


33 15 





82.9517 


9 17 


6 


24.2709 


15 17 


6 


39.0179 


21 


17 


6 


53. 7648 


27 17 


6 


68.5118 


33 17 


6 


83.2588 


10 





24.5782 


16 





39. .3252 


22 








54.0722 


28 





68.8191 


34 





83.5661 


10 2 


6 


24.8853 


16 2 


6 


39.6323 


22 


2 


6 


54.3793 


28 2 


6 


69. 1262 


34 2 


6 


83.8732 


10 5 





25. 1928 


16 5 





39.9398 


22 


5 





54.6868 


28 5 





69. 4337 


34 5 





84. 180f 


10 7 


6 


25.4999 


16 7 


6 


40. 2469 


22 


7 


6 


54.9939 


28 7 


6 


69.7408 


34 7 


6 


84. 4878 


10 10 





25.8069 


16 10 





40. 5539 


22 


10 





55.3009 


28 10 





70.0478 I 


34 10 





84. 7948 


10 12 


6 


26. 1145 


16 12 


6 


40. 8615 


22 


12 


6 


55. 6085 


28 12 


6 


70.3554 


34 12 


6 


85. 1024 


10 15 





26.4216 


16 15 





41.1686 


22 15 





55. 9156 


28 15 





70. 6625 


34 15 





85. 4095 


10 17 


6 


26.7287 


16 17 


6 


41.4757 


22 17 


6 


56.2227 


28 17 


6 


70.9696 


34 17 


6 


85. 7166 



COMPARISON OF SWEDISH AND AMERICAN SOFTWOOD LUMBER. 

It is difficult to find any wood in the United States comparable 
with Swedish pine and spruce. Up to the present time Swedish 
lumber has faced competition only with Douglas fir and southern 
yellow pine, which are different in many respects from the Swedish 
species. 



256 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The American exporter has the g^eat advantage of being able to 
supply lumber havmg special qualities; for instance, rot-resisting, 
fire-resisting, and especially strong construction material, pattern 
wood, cabinet woods, etc. But he has not yet availed himsen of this 
opportunity by advocating his products for special purposes. 

The principal advantageous features of Douglas fir and southern 
yellow pine are the wide stock and long lengths that can be supplied. 
From the Swedish export statistics it may be seen that the output 
for export of lumber 8^ inches and wider* is only about 20 per cent 
and that such stock is sold at a very heavy increase above the nar- 
rower sizes. Swedish stock can not generally be supplied with any 
large quantities of lumber 20 feet and more in length, and any order 
calling for specified lengths commands extra charges. 

However, extra long and extra wide lumber is sometimes ordered 
only to be resawn. In South American countries, for example, long 
timber is frequently cut into several shorter lengths. But it is possi- 
ble to educate the market to order what it actually needs. 

A Spanish house, closely cooperating with the Swedish exporters 
in extending the interest in Swedish lumber, states in its Spanish 
price lists that "as long lengths of Swedish lumber are higher priced, 
customers are requested not to specify longer lengths than are 
necessary." 

Formerly South Africa took only planks which were resawn in 
that country. But the Swedish exporters extended their market 
materially by making importers understand that they could supply 
narrow sizes at reduced prices. 

The Swedish lumber has the advantage of being cut to a smaller 
standard of measurement than the American lumber. Swedish lum- 
ber is trimmed on odd and even feet and the boards are cut on the 
one-half inch in width and on the one-quarter or even on the one- 
eighth inch in thickness. Practically any size of stock can be pro- 
duced, but if odd dimensions are ordered an additional charge is made. 

MANUFACTURE. 

Accuracy of manufacture is the principal advantage of Swedish 
lumber. It is always true to size — neither more nor less than the 
specifications. Trade Commissioner Simmons' s investigation in 
South America illustrates the difference between Southern yellow 
pine and Swedish pine in this respect. (See fig. 70.) 

QUALITY. 

The small percentage of clears and upper grades is the most serious 
handicap for Swedish lumber, and here American lumber has a 
OTeat advantage. Otherwise Swedish stock is sound construction 
lumber; there are no large loose knots except in cull grades. There 
is a large number of knots, but thev are firmly incased and solid. 
Swedish lumber is very serviceable for general-utility purposes. It 
is of medium weight, has considerable breaking strength, and is 
medium hard, easily worked, and fairly rot-resistant (pine) . 

Of special stock, such as. rift grain, heart wood, etc., the yield is 
so small as to be practically negligible. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




FIG. 110.— TYPE OF OCEAN-GOING VESSEL USED BY INTERIOR MILLS. 




FIG. 111.— LUMBER PAID FOR BUT LEFT BY IMPORTER BECAUSE OF LACK OF 
SHIPPING FACILITIES. EXPORTERS CAREFULLY STORED THIS PARCEL 
WITHOUT ADDITIONAL CHARGE. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 257 

GRADING. 

There are no absolutely uniform grading rules in Sweden, but there 
is no greater variation between shipments of the same grade from any 
two standard export mills in Sweden than is admitted by the Ameri- 
can grading rules of lumber for export. The United States has to 
offset the theoretical advantage of uniform grading rules by the fact 
that (1) they are said by some to be too elastic and (2) some shippers 
do not maintain the grades. In Sweden the grades are not uniform 
for all mills, but the grades for each miU are uniform from year to 
year. 

The excellent marketing methods, the branding of every piece of 
lumber, planed and rough, for export, adec[uate steamship connec- 
tions with the principal markets, arbitration service abroad, and 
other factors have built up the export trade in Swedish Imnber, in 
spite of its inferiority in both quality and size as compared with the 
principal American softwoods exported. 

2092°— 21 17 



FUTURE OF SWEDISH FORESTS, Ll^MBER INDUSTRY, AND 
LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

The future supply of wood for the Swedish lumber and pulp indus- 
tries seems to be amply safeguarded by the new forest laws and the 
thorough understanding on the part of the larger forest owners in 
regard to the conservation and judicious management of their hold- 
ings. Recently the smaller holders also have taken a keen interest 
in the better management of their forests, mainly on account of the 
high value of forest products, and they have been greatly assisted 
by the work of the forest commissions in the different parts of the 
country. The draining of swamps and planting of cut-over areas are 
progressing very rapidly and no doubt will be one of the main features 
of the Swedish forest policy in the following decades. 

The aim of the Swedish forest owners will be to decrease the age of 
maturity for cutting. When the results of the new forest laws, re- 
forestation, and draming activities are realized, it is expected that the 
stands of the Swedish forests will be materially increased. One may 
therefore look forward to a higher yield of the Swedish forests in the 
future than they are giving at present. The cutting out of large 
areas of forests is out of the question because the forests are so im- 
portant an asset that public attention is constantly focused on them. 

The lumber and the pulp industry must always be among the lead- 
ing industries in Sweoen, Which of the two will be the more im- 
portant is difficult to say, as the development depends largely upon the 
relative demand for lumber and pulp products in the v/orld's markets. 
The tendency has been toward a further development of the pulp in- 
dustry, while it seems that the lumber industry has already reached 
its climax. In this connection, it must be noted that the majority 
of the pulp mills in Sweden are owned and controlled, wholly or in 
part, by the lumber mills, and that these concerns can easily change 
from one industry to the other when conditions warrant. 

It is not expected that any large number of new mills will be con- 
structed in southern Sweden or in southern or central Norrland. In 
northern Norrland, on the other hand, there are still vast areas of 
forests that have not been exploited to any great extent up to the 
present time. As these regions are principally pine forests, and as 
pine is not used for pulp to any great extent, it is evident that these 
regions will be exploited mainly by the lumber mills. The Govern- 
ment has the largest holdings of timber in this part of the country, and 
it depends a great deal upon the action taken by the State whether 
new mills will be constructed in the near future. 

It has been difficult at times, in other parts of Sweden, for a number 
of the mills to obtain the necessary raw material at a reasonable cost, 
and their capacity is in excess of their average annual output during 
the last few years. It would not be necessary, therefore, to construct 
new mills in the rest of Sweden in order to increase production. 

While there always will be a market for Swedish rough lumber, the 
prospects of the Swedish planing mills and box factories are rather 
uncertain. The capacity of these miUs has been increased largely 

258 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 259 

during the war to satisfy the abnormal demand for war material. As 
several countries will probably protect their native planing-raill 
industries by imposing a duty on imported planed stock, a large in- 
crease in the output of the Swedish planing mills and box factories 
is not to be expected in the near future. 

The question of manufacturing wooden articles that before the war 
were made from Swedish lumber in Germany and other countries has 
been given serious consideration in Sweden, and many of the Swedish 
planing mills and box factories will probably engage in such activities 
if the market for planing-mill products should be curtailed to any 
great extent. 

The per capita consumption of wood in Sweden is very large, par- 
ticularly in the rural districts, where large quantities of wood are 
wasted annualby for purposes which cheaper substitutes would serve 
just as well. If the present high prices of wood and wood products 
should be maintainea they will doubtless lead to a decreased domestic 
consumption of wood, as the lumber and pulp manufacturers would 
take energetic steps to obtain increased quantities of raw material. 

The development of waterpower in Sweden will also have an im- 
portant effect upon the consumption of wood in that country. 

The markets for Swedish lumber are well established and unless 
the exports of lumber from Rufesia should increase materially over the 
pre-war figure, the Swedish lumber exporters will probably be able 
to hold their present markets. It is not believed that any country 
other than Russia would be able seriously to curtail the markets for 
Swedish lumber. 

For the next five or ten years, therefore, one may count on annual 
lumber exports from Sweden of 1,800,000,000 to 2,000,000,000 feet, 
board measure, provided that the foreign markets can consume these 
quantities. 

Many steamship lines have been established in the last few years, 
and as the Swedish merchant marine is now being developed to a large 
extent and new steamship lines will be established in the future, the 
Swedish lumber exporters will have better opportunities than before 
to place their lumber in new markets, particularly in countries outside 
of Europe. 

For several years before the war the tendency was to spread over a 
larger field. Several of the far-away markets have been able to pay 
higher prices for Swedish lumber than the European markets. The 
lumber-export trade is based on an adequate supply of raw material, 
careful manufacturing and seasoning, and an intelligent system of 
exporting, which, in connection with adequate transportation facili- 
ties, will always maintain Sweden in its position among the leading 
lumber-exporting countries in the world. 



APPENDIXES. 



Appendix A.— SWEDISH IMPORTS OF WOODS. 

None of the three north European countries, Sweden, Norway, and Finland, has 
an adequate supply of hardwoods. Sweden is probably in a better position in this 
respect than the other two countries, but the supply of hardwoods in Sweden is not 
sufficient to cover the domestic demand. 

The hardwoods found in Sweden are birch, oak, alder, aspen, beech, ash, and a 
few species of minor importance. Birch is the most important of these species and 
the one of which there is the largest supply. Birch is used as a general-utility wood, 
but it is difficult to obtain clear birch logs and logs of large dimensions and as the 
same conditions apply to the other species mentioned, it is evident that Sweden 
must be dependent on other countries for its supply of the upper grades of hardwoods. 
This is true also of the upper grades of softwoods. The spruce and pine in Sweden 
must be termed common construction lumber not suitable for the highest grade 
joinery and finish. The imports of softwoods are small, however; hardwoods constitute 
the bulk of the Swedish imports of wood. 

The accompanying table shows the imports of foreign logs, hewn timber, and lumber 
into Sweden from 1911 to 1916, by principal countries of origin. (The importation of 
Finnish and Norwegian logs has been discussed in previous chapters.) 



Imports into Sweden op Logs, Hewn Timber, and Lumber, by Countries of 
Origin, from 1911 to 1916. 



Countries of origin. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


LOGS.o 


Mfett. 

25 

97,489 

17, 705 

156 

523 


Mfeet. 


Mfeet. 


Mfett. 


Mfeet. 


Mfeet. 
207 




95,832 

15, 528 

295 

454 

321 

63 

62 


101, 004 

22, 320 

333 

1,349 

259 

152 

55 


101,211 

17,091 

621 

715 

263 

82 

51 


80,923 


124,888 








188 
576 
84 
105 
169 


161 




196 








435 
535 


121 




539 






Total 


116,868 


112,555 


125,472 


120,034 


82,045 


126,201 








(0 


185 


755 


336 


371 


52 






STAVES, BOARDS, PLANKS, BATTENS, AND 
SCANTLINGS.d 


2,997 
2,252 


1,643 
2,622 
264 
1,255 
2,042 


1,981 
5,822 
440 
1,658 
2,157 


1,313 
7,896 
650 
1,244 
1,612 


1,119 
5,389 


1,312 


Finland 


7,047 




648 




997 
1,219 


1,698 
667 


1,109 




4,206 




80 




113 
62 


299 
27 


456 
127 


338 

112 

52 

1,164 

331 








28 










970 
253 


2,036 
1, 751 


1,255 
240 


1,343 
105 


759 




23 






Total 


8,863 


11,939 


14, 136 


14,712 


10,349 


15,184 







a Including a small quantity of hewn timber. Figures for 1911 do not show logs and hewn timber 
separately. Since most of the timber imported was logs, the conversion factor used was 283 board feet 
to the cubic meter. 

b Conversion factor, 353 board feet to the cubic meter. 

c Not stated separately in 1911. 

d Conversion factor, 424 board feet to the cubic meter. 

260 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 261 

The Swedish statistics consider the country of origin as the last country from which 
the lumber was shipped before it reached Sweden. Therefore such countries as 
Germany and Denmark, together with Belgium, Norway, and the United Kingdom, 
figure prominently as exporters of lumber to Sweden. It is certain that only small 
quantities of native species (with the exception of German oak from Germany) were 
exported to Sweden from these countries and that the lumber and logs credited these 
countries in the statistics must have originated elsewhere and been reexported or 
transshipped to the Swedish markets. 

Basing a study of the importation of foreign woods on the last normal year before 
the war, 1913, it is seen that Japan exported the largest quantity of hewn timber, 
which represented Japanese oak. 

The imported aspen logs came from Russia and were used almost exclusively by 
the match factories in Sweden. Oak logs also were imported from Russia and Ger- 
many. Mahogany was chiefly reexported from Germany, Denmark, and the United 
Kingdom; only a small portion came from the United States. 

Finland exported considerable quantities of staves to Sweden. No species are 
given for these staves in the Swedish statistics, but it appears from the Finnish export 
statistics that they represented pine and spruce stock. 

Of sawn lumber of other species considerable quantities were exported from the 
United States to Sweden, but the bulk of the lumber was imported from Germany. 

As it appears from these statistics, the United States played a comparatively insig- 
nificant part as a supplier of logs and lumber to Sweden, but large quantities of Ameri- 
can lumber were imdoubtedly included in the exports of hunber to Sweden from 
Germany, England, Denmark, Belgium, and other coimtries. 

SPECIES OF LUMBER IMPORTED. 

Oak has been and always will be the principal foreign species imported into Sweden. 
American white oak is unquestionably the most popular foreign wood in Sweden. 
It is claimed by the importers that this oak is more uniform in color and better man- 
ufactured than the oak imported from other countries. Furthermore, each piece of 
American oak lumber is graded and edged, although complaints were heard that the 
American grading rules change almost yearly. 

German oak planks and boards are imported in large quantities into Sweden. The 
German oak lumber is not edged, but is shipped and sold in the form of the logs from 
which it is sawn (see fig. 114). While each piece of American oak is graded and 
edged, the German mills base the grading on the log. The German system of selling 
the entire log has the advantage that the carpenters are better enabled to match the 
different boards and planks for cabinetmaking, so as to obtain the same figuring of 
wood in panels and other matched stock. 

Japanese oak was imported in small quantities immediately before the war and 
seemed to give satisfaction, mainly on account of its cheapness. The same criticisms 
have been offered in Sweden as have been usually heard in the United States in 
regard to the texture and other properties of Japanese oak. Part of this oak was 
imported direct from Japan on the regular liners between that country and Sweden, 
but some quantities were also reexported to Sweden from Germany. 

Swedish oak does not compare with German and American oak, being generally 
considerably coarser and of uneven color. While the German and American oak are 
used for the better class of furniture and finish, Swedish oak is used for rough work 
and for the cheaper class of furniture. German and American oak are used for floors, 
furniture, and a multitude of purposes for which these woods are especially adapted. 

Mahogany is used principally for furniture, finish, and similar purposes and also to 
some extent in ship constniction. 

Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir have been used to some extent in shipbuild- 
ing, dock construction, piling, etc., but native pine and spruce are used whenever 
possible, and the cheapness of the native species makes competition very keen for 
the two American woods. Southern yellow pine and Douglas fir have been imported, 
therefore, only in long and wide stock and in the upper grades, because such stock 
either can not be obtained in Sweden or can be had only at much higher prices. 

Of other foreign species imported in limited quantities may be mentioned hickory 
for ski stock and Hungarian ash for finish. Red gum has been imported in logs and 
manufactured in Sweden into veneers. Yellow poplar is used for making of veneer 
pattern wood, etc., and was formerly very popular, but during recent years the prices 
have been too high for the Swedish market to use this wood for many pui"poses. 
Siamese teak is used in shipbuilding and car construction, but this wood also has 
increased materially in price and cheaper woods are used whenever possible. No 
suitable substitute for this wood has been found for ship decking, etc. Austrian 
spruce is used for musical instruments (sounding boards, piano keys, etc.). There 
are a few other species of foreign woods of minor importance. 



262 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

WOOD-USING INDUSTRIES. 

Although Sweden can not be said to be among the most important markets for Ameri- 
can lumber, ihe country has many growing industries which use more or less foreign 
wood as raw material. 

Sweden is a large producer of agricultural machinery and considerable foreign wood 
is consumed in its manufacture. The shipyards and boat-building plants consume 
important quantities of foreign soft and hard woods, especially for decking, as Swedish 
pine is not suitable for this purpose for the better class of ships. 

The sash and door factories do not use foreign lumber to any great extent because 
the main production in Sweden is based on native lumber as raw material. How- 
ever, for the better grades of sashes and doors some foreign oak, mahogany, etc., are 
used. The furniture factories, on the other hand, probably consume the largest 
quantities of foreign lumber in Sweden. This industry has been growing rapidly 
and is not only supplying the Swedish market but producing considerable "furniture 
for exportation to near-by coim tries. Before the war foreign lumber was used exten- 
sively for furniture, but the difficulty of obtaining suitable stock from foreign coim- 
tries during the war forced the furniture factories to use native hardwoods. These, 
however, are not satisfactory. 

The railway-car shops also consume considerable foreign wood. For car siding 
Siamese teak has been used extensively for some years, but this material is now 
very expensive and the Swedish car shops are in the market for a less expensive wood. 

Before the war the plants manufacturing telephone and telegraph apparatus used 
considerable quantities of walnut and oak. The factories for musical instruments, 
firearms, airplanes, automobiles, and carriages all use foreign lumber. The veneer 
factories use both native and foreign logs. This industry is growing materially, being 
protected by a high tariff. 

The Swedish Government usually obtains its requirements from the Swedish 
importers. 

Foreign lumber is not used to any great extent in the ordinary construction of 
houses in Sweden. Interior finish, sashes, doors, and floors are made of Swedish 
pine or spruce, which are painted. In the better class of houses in the Swedish 
cities the doors and floors, besides interior finish and trim, are often made of Swedish 
or foreign oak. In the larger cities the houses are very solidly constructed. Par- 
ticularljr the Swedish oflices are elaborately equipped; oak and other high-grade 
lumber is extensively used. 

METHODS OF IMPORTATION. 

There are no resident agents in Sweden handling foreign lumber. The importers 
in Sweden have obtained their supplies of wood to some extent direct from the export- 
ing countries, but they have purchased chiefly through foreign agents and importers, 
mainly Danish and German. At times these merchants spUt up cargoes among many 
smaller importers in Sweden and in the neighboring coim tries. 

Before the war American lumber was either shipped in parcel lots to Sweden direct 
from the exporters in the United States without the use of middlemen or transshipped 
from Copenhagen, Hamburg, London, Liverpool, and other lumber centers in Europe. 

German lumber was generally sold by agents through personal soliciting in Swe- 
den, but it was often claimed that these German agents caused considerable dissat- 
isfaction because they sold to importers, contractors, wholesalers, and consumers 
alike, without paying any attention to the handhng of the lumber through the regular 
channels. During the latter part of the war Germany was practically the only source 
of supply for certain species of lumber, such as oak. The lumber was usually shipped 
by rail from southern Germany. 

Previous to the war it was frequently contended by the Swedish importers con- 
versant with the grading system in the United States that American lumber reex- 
ported from some of the European coimtries unquestionably had been tampered 
with; the grades sold to the Swedish merchants compared very imfavorably with 
the grades outlined in the American grading rules covering these species. The 
many middlemen between the Swedish importers and the American exporters have 
no doubt caused a heax-y increase in the price that the Swedish importers had to pay 
for this stock, thereby seriously curtaiUng the sales of American lumber and its use- 
fulness in Sweden. 



It is of no interest to give a detailed account of the prices paid before the war or 
during the war. because the pre-war price level will never be reached again and the 
prices ruling during the war were exorbitant. The present market conditions are 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE 263 

unsettled, as any regular supply of foreign lumber has not yet been started, owing to 
shipping difficulties. The supplies of some foreign woods were very small in Sweden 
during the war on account of the blockade, and it was therefore a simple matter for 
the importers and dealers that had stocks on hand to hold them until the demand 
was so urgent that they could name their own prices. 

Mahogany, which prior to the war was usually sold at about $2 per cubic foot, was 
sold during the war at about $15 per cubic foot. American oak, which usually be- 
fore the war commanded approximately $1 per cubic foot, or somewhat less, was 
sold during the war even as high as at $6.50 per cubic foot. German oak was sold at 
about half of this price during the war, but the quality was often very unsatisfactory'. 
In these circumstances it is of no avail to go into the matter of prices of foreign woods, 
which will come down as soon as the shipping situation is relieved. 

In regard to native hardwoods, the following figures show the average prices per 
cubic foot paid for logs delivered at interior railway stations in southern Sweden from 
1914 to 1918: 



Kinds of wood. 



1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


Cents. 


21 


21 


27 


34 


29 


34 


40 


40 


17 


19 


19 


20 


11 


12 


13 


24 


11 


12 


13 


24 


13 


15 


15 


24 



1918 



Oak.. 
Ash.. 
Beech 
Birch. 
Alder. 
Aspen 



Cents. 



The consumer, however, paid much higher prices for these native species; for in- 
stance, oak lumber was sold at about $1.05 per cubic foot and birch at about $0.60 
per cubic foot during 1918. 

Russia was unable to furnish aspen logs during the latter part of the war, and this 
caused the Swedish match factories to use native hardwoods as raw material, which 
naturally increased the prices for these species. 

PROSPECTS FOR FUTURE IMPORTS OF AMERICAN LUMBER. 

Although Sweden, for reasons already given, may not offer a very important mar- 
ket for American lumber, it is believed that if a keener interest in this market is shown 
by American lumber exporters more can be done in Sweden than has been accom- 
plished heretofore. American lumber has not been advertised to any extent and the 
handling of American lumber has been left to those who were not more interested in 
this stock than in Siamese teak. Central American mahogany, or German oak. 

The importers visited in Sweden expressed their willingness to cooperate with 
American lumber exporters in furthering the sale of American hunber in Sweden. 
They should be supplied with full information regarding American lumber and its 
uses. The war prosperity that Sweden enjoys will result in increased building activ- 
ities to relieve the present scarcity of dwellings. Although the Swedes are conserv- 
ative, it would not take long to convince them of the merits of the better class of 
American soft and hard woods. The severe climate in Sweden calls for solid house 
construction, and as the Swedes always spend large sums on the equipment and con- 
struction of their homes, it is believed that American lumber should find a good mar- 
ket there in the coming years if properly advertised. 



IMPORTERS. 

There are comparatively few importers of foreign woods in Sweden and only a few 
of these importers are in a position to take any large quantities of foreign lumber at 
one time. This may be the reason why the Swedish importers have usually bought 
in parcel lots from merchants in other countries. Some of the houses handling im- 
ported woods are only small concerns, and many of them make a specialty of handling 
native hardwoods, carrying foreign wood only as a side line. The larger establish- 
ments maintain resawing plants for cutting logs and lumber. 

[The names of the principal houses m Sweden engaged in handling 
foreign woods may be obtained from the Bureau of Foreign and 
Domestic Commerce or its district and cooperative offices. In- 
quirers should refer to file No. EUR-12031.] 



Appendix p.— SWEDISH EXPORTS OF WOODS.* 

Table I. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Rough and Planed 
Lumber from 1886 to 1918. 



Years. 



1886-1890, annual average 
1891-1895, annua! average 
1886-1890, annual average 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 

1910 , 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 



Rough lumberCpIanks, 
battens, and boards).a 



M feet. 



1,510,288 
1,651,420 
1,853,471 
1,563,941 
1,700,661 
1,776,575 
1,576,432 
1,673,922 
1,781,562 
1,515,787 
1,391,314 
1,249,267 
1,490,302 
1,496,205 
1,620,838 
1,669,140 
1,308,984 
1,690,047 
1,852,753 
1,040,532 
1,154,704 



Percent- 
age of 
total 
rough and 
planed. 



94.85 
93.43 
89.88 
87.25 
88.51 
86.29 
86.69 
87.09 
88.53 
87.11 
86.10 
86.62 
84.17 
84.29 
86.30 
85.19 
83.74 
88.66 
90.42 
91.87 
91.25 



Planed boards. a 



M feet. 



Percent- 
age of 
total 
rough and 
planed. 



81,921 
116,174 
198, 131 
228, 536 
228, 651 
282, 160 
242, 146 
248, 157 
230, 874 
224,352 
224,686 
193, 012 
280, 221 
278, 929 
255, 961 
290, 276 
254,274 
216, 232 
196, 184 

92, 044 
110,680 



5.15 
6.57 
10.12 
12.75 
11.49 
13.71 
13.31 
12.91 
11.47 
12.89 
13.90 
13.38 
15.83 
15.71 
13.64 
14.81 
16.26 
11.34 
9.58 
8.13 
8.75 



Total rough 
and planed.o 



M feet. 



1,592,209 
1,767,594 
2,051,602 
1,792,477 
1,989,312 
2,058,735 
1,818,578 
1,922,079 
2,012,436 
1,740,139 
1,616,000 
1,442,279 
1,770,523 
1,775,134 
1,876,799 
1,959,416 
1,563,258 
1,906,279 
2,048,937 
1,132,576 
1,265,384 



a Including box shocks prior to 1907. 

Table II. — Value of Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Planks, 
Battens, and Boards (Rough Stock), and of Planed Boards, from 1904 
TO 1916. 



Years. 


Planks, bat- 
tens, and 
boards (rough 
stock). 


Planed 
boards. 


Years. 


Planks, bat- 
tens, and 
boards (rough 
stock). 


Planed 
boards. 


1904 


a $25, 535, 000 
027,063,000 
a 33, 002, 000 
30,244,000 
24,093,000 
23,820,000 
30,541,000 


6 $4, 470, 000 
6 4,612,000 
6 4,636,000 
4,717,000 
4,200,000 
4,127,000 
6,429,000 


1911 

1912 


$29,215,000 
29, 818, 000 
32,524,000 
26,886,000 
39,945,000 
58,081,000 


$6,218,000 
5, 308, 000 


1905 


1906 


1913 

1914 


6,657,000 
7,091,000 
6,547,000 


1907 


1908 


1915.. 


1909 


1916 


7,753,000 


1910 







a Including box shocks. 



6 Including planed box shocks. 



Table III. — Exports from Sweden of Timber and Lumber of Different Kinds 

IN 1913. 



Kinds of timber and 
lumber. 


Cubic feet. 


Per cent. 


Kinds of timber and 
lumber. 


Cubic feet. 


Per cent. 


Pine and spruce: 

Rough liunber 


1.54,917,580 
26,448,913 
26,901,353 
18,875,687 
14,048,871 


64.1 
10.9 
11.2 
7.9 
5.9 


Other native species: 

Round timber 


362,249 

47,408 

903, 715 

276,328 


• 22.8 


Plaiied lumber 


Hewn timber 


3.0 


Round timber 


Firewood 


56.8 


HewTi timber 


Sawn lumber 


17.4 




Total, other native 
species 






1,589,700 




Total, pine and 


241,192,404 


100.0 


100.0 








242, 782, 104 











I Most of these tables are based on Swedish official statistics, the remainder were obtained through the 
courtesy of the Swedish Lumber Exporters' Association at Stockholm. 

264 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 





Ik C* €y g^ 



^ K^ kJ \./ 
. . — M m T ■* *^ Kj V^ --««««M»^oMMi«*<^. ~ 



ft <; <i C 



H 



ii 



s s c 
s « c 



H S S C 






I J i3 O V,' 

BS SC 
B 



1^ s s c 

n s ^ c 

Ii S S C^ " 



RS 



1j s s c 



iM 




iS s c 

IjSSC 
15SSC 





Courti-sy of BurKvikoch Ala Xya A/B. 

FIG. 113.— TRADE-MARKING OF LUMBER. 



Special Agents Series No. 195. 




I II .. 1 1-1. ( ,CRMAN OAK IMPORTED INTO SWEDEN. 




FiG. 1 15, — SWEDISH OAK LOGS. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE, 265 

Table IV. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Planks, Battens, 
Boards, and Box Shocks, Planed and Rough, by Continents, from 1912 to 
1916. 



Continents. 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


Europe 

Africa 


$33,145,000 

3,407,000 

286,000 

475,000 

686,000 


Perct. 

87.2 

9.0 

.8 

1.2 

1.8 


S;36,S00,000 

4.006,000 

181,000 

258,000 

966,000 


Per ct. 

87.2 

9.5 

.4 

.6 

2.3 


$34,040,000 

2,022,000 

141,000 

160,000 

740,000 


Perct. 

91.7 

5.5 

.4 

.4 

2.0 


$50,489,000 

1,312,000 

39,000 

61,000 

198,000 


Per ct. 

96.9 

2.5 

.1 

.1 

.4 


$73,468,000 

1,977,000 

134,000 

28,000 

1,000 


Perct. 

97.2 

2.6 


Asia 


.2 


America 

Australia 




Total 


37,999,000 


100.0 


42,211,000 


100.0 


37,103,000 100.0 


52,099,000 


100.0 75,608,000 


100.0 



Table V. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Rough Lumber (Planks, 
Battens, Scantlings, Boards, and Box Shocks), by Continents, from 1905 to 
1913. 



Years. 



1905: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Per cent 
1906: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Percent 
1907: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Percent 
1908: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Percent 
1909: 

Mfeet... 

Value.. . 

Per cent 
1910: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Per cent 
1911^ 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Per cent 
1912: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Per cent 
1913: 

Mfeet... 

Value... 

Percent 



Europe. 



1,601,830 

?25,723,000 

95.1 

1,700,834 

$31,298,000 

94.9 

1,473,824 

$29,033,000 

94.0 

1,335,430 

$22,954,000 

91.7 

1,219,636 

$23,202,000 

92.6 

1,398,988 
$28,364,000 

88.7 

1,412,683 

.$27,528,000 

88.9 

1,544,876 

$28,478,000 

89.1 

1,589,152 

$31,048,000 

90.6 



Africa. 



66,271 

$1,218,000 

4.5 

69, 74S 

$1,451,000 

4.4 

75, 726 

$1,588,000 

5.1 

89, 761 

$1,766,000 

7.1 

72,504 

$1,565,000 

6.2 

122,833 

$2,916,000 

9.1 

119,441 

$2,729,000 
8.8 

126, 098 

$2,731,000 

8.5 

143,651 
$3,174,000 

8.2 



Asia. 



42 
$1,000 



170 
$4,000 



2,586 

$37,000 

0.1 

933 

$17,000 

0.1 

3,010 

$67, 000 

0.3 

5,215 

$120,000 

0.4 

6,360 

$161,000 

0.5 

5,512 

$132,000 

0.4 

2,883 

$67, 000 

0.1 



Australia. 



2,926 

$56,000 

0.2 

4,961 

$106,000 

0.3 

6, .530 

$143,000 

0.5 

8,777 

$173,000 

0.7 

5,008 

$110,000 

0.4 

13, 738 

$323, 000 

1.0 

9,667 

$222,000 

0.7 

9,243 

$214, 000 

0.7 

8,523 

$197, 000 

0.5 



America. 



3,646 

$64,000 

0.2 

6,657 

$141,000 

0.4 

4,155 

$87,000 

0.3 

5,936 

8110,000 

0.4 

5,978 

$122,000 

0.5 

10,939 

$238, 000 

0.8 

16,494 

$329,000 

1.1 

20, 564 

$405,000 

1.3 

10,091 

$195, 000 

0.6 



Total. 



1,674,715 

$27,062,000 

100.0 

1,782,370 

$33,000,000 

100.0 

1,562,821 

$30,888,000 

100.0 

1,440,837 

$25,020,000 

100.0 

1,306,131 

$25,066,000 

. 100.0 

1,551,713 

$31,961,000 

100.0 

1,564,645 

$30,969,000 

100.0 

1,706,293 

$31,960,000 

100.0 

1,754,300 

$34,681,000 

100.0 



266 SWEDISH LUMiBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Table VI. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Planed Boards and 
Box Shooks, by Continents, from 1905 to 1913. ■ 



Years. 


Europe. 


Africa. 


Asia. 


Australia. 


America. 


Total. 


1905: 

M feet 


220,607 
$4,093,000 

88.7 

205,767 

$4,123,000 

88.9 

215,689 

$4,502,000 

88.9 

208,311 

$3,944,000 

86.6 

175,494 

$3,812,000 

85.1 

224,635 

$5,188,000 

76.6 

211,067 

$4,742,000 

71.9 

216, 198 

$4,667,000 

77.3 

244,860 

$5,753,000 

76.4 


23,320 

$438,000 

9.5 

17,172 

$351,000 

7.6 

17,978 

$372,000 

7.3 

16,494 

$327,000 

7.2 

15,137 

$341,000 

7.6 

33, 284 

$799,000 

11.8 

31,927 

$747,000 

11.3 

31,206 

$676,000 

11.2 

35,404 

$832,000 

11.0 


424 

$7,000 

0.2 

170 

$3,000 

0.1 

890 

$18,000 

0.4 

594 

$13,000 

0.3 

806 

$19,000 

0.4 

3,053 

$76,000 

1.1 

2,035 

$50,000 
0.8 

5,809 

$155,000 

2.6 

4,537 

$114,000 

1.4 


3,646 

$67,000 

1.5 

6,572 

$132,000 

2.8 

4,198 

$90,000 

1.8 

13,102 

$246,000 

5.4 

13,144 

$277,000 

6.2 

30, 189 

$685,000 

10.1 

42,782 

$959,000 

14.5 

22,430 
$472,000 

7.8 

33,326 

$769,000 

10.4 


254 

$5,000 

0.1 

1,314 

$27,000 

0.6 

3,901 

$81,000 

1.6 

975 

$22,000 

0.5 

1,357 

$33,000 

0.7 

933 

$24,000 

0.4 

3,731 

$97,000 

1.5 

2,586 

$70,000 

1.1 

2,332 

$63,000 

0.8 


248, 251 


Value 


$4,610,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1906: 

M feet 


230,995 


Value 


$4,636,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1907: 

Mfeet 


242,656 


Value 


S5, 063, 000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1908: 

M feet 


239,476 


Value 


$4,552,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1909: 

Mfeet 


205,938 


Value 


$4,482,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1910: 

M feet 


292,094 


Value 


$6,772,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1911: 

M feet 


291,542 


Value 


$6,595,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1912: 

Mfeet 


278,229 


Value 


$6,040,000 


Per cent 


100.0 


1913: 

M feet 


320,459 


Value 


$7,531,000 


Per cent 


100.0 







Table VII. — Total Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Planks, Bat- 
tens, Boards, Staves, Molding Stock, Box Shooks, etc.. Planed and 
Rough, in 1913 and 1918, by Principal Countries of Destination. 



Countries. 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Portugal 

Italy 

Greece 



Mfeet. 

693,673 

392, 893 

257, 430 

211,777 

127,003 

79, 794 

71,021 

76, 181 

9,365 

4,239 

3,043 



1918 



Mfeet. 
501, 744 
21,212 
107,918 
284,841 
312,646 



2,237 


171.777 


362 


50 



Countries. 



European and Asiatic Turkey 
Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco.". 

Egypt 

British South Afiica 

Other countries in Africa 

Australia 

South America 

Other countries 

Total 



19l8 



Mfeet. t Mfeet. 

6,386 I 

63,757 i 547 

16,973 

70,442 j 18,578 

25,691 I 

41,826 ■ 

12,365 I 1,665 

21,234 1 3,348 

2,175,093 1,426,925 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 267 

Table VIII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Planks, Battens, 
AND Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 
TO 1918. 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Portugal 

Italy 

Greece 

European and Asiatic Tur- 
key 

Algiers, Tunis, and Morocco. 

Egypt 

British South Africa , 

Other countries in Africa 

Australia 

South America 

Other countries 



1903 



Mfeet. 

770,572 

326,953 

231,444 

154,581 

181,936 

86,562 

47,476 

41,376 

6,633 

3,085 

1,501 

87 

9,312 

13,086 

143,695 

31,898 

4,200 

1,507 

2,831 



1904 



Mfeet. 

638,766 

331,337 

255,004 

149,367 

169, 118 

64,209 

44,083 

58,398 

10,488 

3,095 

2,030 



10,846 
21,628 
33,908 
12,866 
10,054 
1,321 
2,061 



19aT 



Mfeet 

690,626 

829,320 

284,716 

160,778 

185,566 

66,326 

43,738 

42,887 

9,37" 

3,019 

2,111 

34 
14,018 
20,600 
34,602 
20,325 
6,566 
3,914 
3,556 



Total 2,058,7351,818,5791,922,079 2,012,4361,740,1371,616,0011,442,2801,770,524 



1906 



Mfeet 

702,219 

324,027 

324,324 

197,620 

176,689 

, 67,106 

46,397 

43,263 

12,510 

6,417 

2,218 

192 
11,468 
25,508 
36,525 
12,625 
11,559 
7,510 
4,259 



Mfeet. 

301,518 

271,553 

204,340 

111,646 

67, 070 

69,488 

30,870 

7,956 

5,435 

3,124 

315 

6,146 

34,230 

25,738 

11,621 

10,145 

7,108 

4,063 



1908 



Mfeet 

528,412 

303,882 

220,855 

141,507 

132,937 

55,252 

56,165 

37,254 

10,039 

5,000 

2,920 

30 
16,921 
27,526 
31,838 
14,454 
21,331 
5,390 
4,288 



1909 



Mfeet 

439,505 

294,006 

223,883 

144,288 

97,822 

49,401 

40,873 

36,677 

8,072 

8,633 

2,123 

333 

14,858 

9,918 

26,752 

20,378 

17,422 

4,055 

3,281 



Mfeet. ' 

530,937 

322,651 

281,008 

162,152 

109,678 

61,982 

52,571 

38,028 

8,053 

6,738 

2,289 

1,974 
19,952 
19,022 
73,668 
27,389 
42,089 
6,807 
3,536 



1911 



1913 



1914 



1915 



1916 



1917 



1918 



United Ktagdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Portugal 

Italy 

Greece 

European and Asiatic Tur^ 

key 

Algiers, Tunis, and Morocco. 

Egypt 

British South Africa 

Other countries in Africa 

Avstralia 

South America 

Other countries 

Total 



M feet. 

476,966 

322,813 

300,601 

177,394 

86,649 

74,493 

68,734 

41,416 

8,179 

7,518 

4,732 

3,936 
27,744 
28,439 
51,391 
23,607 
50,599 
14,183 

5,736 



Mfeet. 

512,947 

364,318 

304,579 

187,890 

100,164 

71,326 

70,359 

59,083 

7,562 

5,340 

2,974 

6,239 
33,545 
33,074 
50,971 
16,074 
27,805 
18,113 

4,435 



Mfeet. 

564,701 

383; 540 

246, 158 

205,369 

114,898 

65,344 

70,976 

69,089 

9,365 

4,139 

3,044 

6,134 
53,266 
46,704 
65,724 
25,625 
38,752 
10,866 

5,622 



Mfeet. 

652,752 

131,961 

170,001 

191,131 

130,551 

22,792 

73,321 

80,626 

7, 150 

3,748 

2,176 

2,105 
15,616 

5,645 
29,221 
11,825 
22,414 

5,661 

4,562 



Mfeet. 
984,781 
98,398 
85,088 
203,665 
265,076 



104,574 

119,996 

5,637 

2,798 



Mfeet 

855,714 

293,430 

44,425 

274,741 

275, 737 

33 

92,224 

170,335 

3,661 

271 



M feet. 

323,415 

33,080 

76,145 

229,522 

278,689 



Mfeet. 
386,534 
19,513 
104,578 
277,944 
303,965 



3,514 
168,217 



2,237 

151,581 

362 

50 



5,594 

851 

17,840 

4,045 

4,790 
536 

2,610 



2,245 

661 

27,375 

1,928 



546 



15,460 
1,016 



16,054 



194 

5,964 



3,451 



343 

1,677 



1,775,133 



1,876,798 



1,959,316 



1,563,258 



1,906,279 



2,018,938 



1,132,576 



1,265,384 



268 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



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270 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 



C5 

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"o 







SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 271 

Table X. — Exports from Sweden in 1913 of Pine and Spruce Planks, Bat- 
tens, AND Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destination. 



Countries of destination. 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Portugal 

Italy 

Greece , 

European and Asiatic 
Turkey 

Algeria, Tunis, and Mo- 
rocco 

Egypt 

British South Africa 

Portuguese East Africa. 

French West Africa 

Other countries in Africa 

Australia 

South America 

Other countries , 

Total 



Rough lumber. 



Planks, 2 inches and more 
thick and 8i inches and 
more wide. 



Pine. 



Mfeet. 

72,854 

49,116 

8,599 

8,104 

604 

2,572 

17,064 

8,045 

8,411 

2,602 

65 

143 

14,462 
4,673 

32,987 
7,266 
1,117 
2,651 
3,164 
942 
1,011 



Spruce. 



Mfeet. 
13, 549 
45, 530 
6,007 
3,186 
3,049 
99 
2,566 
4,362 



Total. 



4,437 



150 
194 

456 
79 



1,293 
24 



246,452 



Mfeet. 

86, 403 

94,646 

14,606 

11,290 

3,053 

2,671 

19,630 

12,407 

8,411 

2,602 

65 

143 

18, 899 
4,673 

.33, 137 
7,460 
1,573 
2,730 
3,164 
2,235 
1,035 



331,433 



Battens, 2 inches and 
more thick and 6-8J 
inches wde. 



Pine. 



Mfeet. 

100,390 

63,116 

9,456 

7,001 

6,688 

4,259 

17,470 

11,652 

851 

768 

307 

539 

5,343 

2,928 

3,513 

252 



192 

1,998 

2 

443 



237, 173 



Spruce. 



Mfeet. 

41,867 

46,811 

43,776 

1,453 

30,327 

701 

5,467 

7,058 



24 
784 
'253 



164 



1,588 
30 



180,311 



Total. 



Mfeet. 

142,257 

109, 927 

53, 232 

8,454 

37, 015 

4,960 

22,943 

18,710 

859 

768 

307 

563 

6, 126 

2,928 

3,766 

252 



356 
1,998 
1,590 

473 



417,484 



Scantlings, 2 inches and 
more thick and less 
than 6 inches wide. 



Pine. 



Mfeet. 
48,512 
10,626 
7, 421 
7,758 
1,744 
1,34(3 
3,233 
6,659 



85 
687 

144 

6,176 
2,002 
5,190 
1,691 



1,630 

216 

28 

293 



105,441 



Spruce. 



Mfeet. 

23,410 

19,655 

26, 172 

659 

14,674 

939 

394 

2,920 



352 



Total. 



Mfeet. 

71,922 

30,281 

33,593 

8,417 

16,418 

2,285 

3,627 

9,579 



147 



552 
158 



90,741 



85 
687 

188 

6,528 
2,002 
5,337 
1,691 



2,295 
216 
580 
451 



196,182 











Rough lumber- 


Continued. 






Countries of destination. 


Boards, less than 2 
inches thick and 8J 
inches and more wide. 


Boards, less than 2 inch- 
es thick and 6 to 8J 
inches wide. 


Narrow boards, less than 
2 inches thick and less 
than 6 inches wide. 




Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


United Kingdom 

France 


Mfeet. 

10,092 

7,776 

6,304 

9,708 

263 

2,588 

1,146 

636 


Mfeet. 

3,408 

2,301 

2,441 

3,608 

2,209 

210 

87 

624 


Mfeet. 

13,500 

10,077 
8,745 

13,316 
2,472 
2,798 
1,233 
1,260 


Mieet. 

34, 894 

20,903 

26,443 

48, 338 

1,734 

6,437 

8,665 

1,626 

53 

186 

743 

457 

4,174 

1,372 

324 


Mfeet. 

8,771 

6,134 

20,747 

14,854 

11,963 

1,164 

1,162 

396 

149 
24' 

• 


Mfeet. 

43,665 

37,037 

47, 190 

63, 192 

13,697 

7,001 

9,827 

2,022 

53 

186 

743 

457 

4,. 323 

1,372 

348 


Mfect. 

41,810 

54,628 

39, 269 

44,774 

4,859 

29,902 

11,015 

3,570 

42 

250 

842 

51 

7,409 
544 

1,665 

515 

489 

25 


M feet. 
20,095 
56,571 
46,617 
20,125 
25,102 
15,127 
2,297 
1,816 


Mfeet. 
61,911 
111 199 


Germany 


85 886 


Denmark 


64,899 
29,961 
45 029 


Netherlands 


RfiljiniiTn 


Spain 


13', 312 
5 386 


Norway 


Portugal 


42 


Italy 


248 
89 

117 

6,193 

3,144 

687 

271 

368 

32 

42 

161 


49 

552 

14' 

'"'464' 

87" 

98 


248 
89 

166 

5,745 
3,144 
701 
271 
772 
32 
129 
259 




250 


Greece 




842 


European and Asiatic 
Turkey. . 


26 
438 


77 


Algeria, Timis, and Mo- 
rocco 


7,847 
644 


Egypt 


British South Africa 

Portuguese East Africa. . 


14 


1,679 
515 


Other countries in Africa. 
Australia 


263 
12 
73 

656 


153 

' ■3,'427' 
306 


386 

12 

3,500 

962 


87 


576 
25 


South America 


1,715 
263 


1,715 
749 


Other countries 


486 






Total 


48,865 


16,092 


64,957 


157,353 


69,220 


226,573 


242, 151 


190,293 


432,444 





272 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Table X. — Exports from Sweden in 1913 of Pine and Spruce, Planks, Bat- 
tens, AND Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destination — Con. 





Rough lumber— Continued. 






Planed lumber. 






Countries of destination. 


Total rough stock. 


8J inches and wider. 


6 to 8J inches wide. 




Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


United Kingdom 

France 


MfeH. 

308,558 

206, 165 

97,492 

125,683 

15,892 

47,104 

58,599 

32,188 

9,357 

4,139 

2,733 

1,451 

42,756 
14,663 
44,3(i6 
9,995 
1,117 
5,593 
5,447 
1,087 
3,050 


Mfeet. 
111,100 
177,002 
145, 760 
43, 885 
87,324 
18,240 
11,973 
17, 176 
8 

143 

6,712 

""602" 

194 

456 

1,522 

'"8," 662' 
879 

631,638 


Mfeet. 

419,658 

383, 167 

243,252 

169, 568 

103,216 

65,344 

70,572 

49,364 

9,365 

4,139 

2,733 

1,594 

49,468 

14,663 

44,968 

10, 189 

1,573 

7,115 

5,447 

9,749 

3,929 


Mfeet. 

6,922 

18 

41 

650 

10 


Mfeet. 

10,040 

8 

51 

616 

146 


Mfeet. 

16,962 

26 

92 

1,266 

156 


Mfeet. 

43, 653 

109 

1,083 

6,855 

71 


Mfeet. 

38,729 

93 

1,038 

6,817 

5,853 


Mfeet. 

82,382 

202 


Germany 


2 121 


Denmark 

Netherlands 


13,672 
5 924 


Belgium 




Spain 








132 
1,430 


" '2,'426' 


132 


Norway 


1,162 


447 


1,609 


3,856 


Portugal 


Italy 














Greece 








10 

368 

646 

59 

17,576 

3,505 


523 
"i,'666' 


io 


European and Asiatic 
Turkey 


37 




37 


368 


Algeria, Timis, and Mo- 
rocco 


1 169 


Egypt 








59 


British South Africa 

Portuguese East Africa.. 


121 




121 


19, 182 
3,505 


French West Africa 










Other countries in Africa. 
Australia 


10 
212 

4i' 


18 

990 

8 

2 


28 

1,202 

8 

42 


919 

5,989 

303 

301 


170 

21,613 

762 

212 


1,089 
27,602 


South America 


1,065 
513 


Other countries 






Total 


1,037,435 


1,669,073 


9,223 


12,326 


21,549 


83,009 


79,842 


162 851 







Countries of destination. 



Planed lumber — Continued. 



Less than 6 inches wide. 



Pine. 



Spruce. 



Total. 



Total planed boards. 



Pine. 



Spruce. 



Total. 



Grand total rough and 
planed lumber. 



Pine. 



Spruce. 



Total. 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Portugal 

Italy 

Greece 

European and Asiatic 
Turkey 

Algeria, Tunis, and Mo- 
rocco 

Egypt 

British South Africa 

Portuguese East Africa. . 

French West Africa 

Other countries in Africa. 

Australia 

South America 

Other countries 



Mfeet. 

26, 186 
145 
539 

11,646 
212 



MfeH. 
19,513 



154 
9,217 
5,390 



Mfeet. 

45,699 
145 
69? 

20, 863 
5,602 



Mfeet. 

76,761 

272 

1,663 

19, 151 

293 



Mfeet. 
68, 282 
101 
1,243 
16,650 
11,389 



Mfeet. 
145,043 
373 
2,906 
35, 801 
11,682 



232 
6,245 



40 
,015 



272 
14,260 



364 
,837 



40 
10,888 



404 
19,725 



289 

4,008 

2,316 

1,982 

1,374 

503 



127 
313 



79 



301 

4,135 

2,629 

1,982 

1,453 

503 



299 

4,413 

2,962 

2,041 

19,071 

4,008 



127 
836 



1,685 



311 

4,540 

3,798 

2,041 

20, 756 

4,008 



1,328 
1,097 



547 



?95 

3,404 

44 

591 



1,623 

4,501 

44 

1,138 



2,257 

7,298 

303 



483 

26,007 

814 

805 



2,740 

33, 305 

1,117 

1,693 



Mfeet. 

385, 319 

206,437 

99, 155 

144,834 

16, 185 

47,104 

58, 963 

41,025 

9,357 

4,139 

3,032 

5,864 

45,718 
16,704 
63,437 
14,003 
1,117 
7,850 
12, 745 
1,390 
3,938 



Mfeet. 
179,382 
177, 103 
147,003 
60, 535 
98, 713 
18, 240 
12,013 
28,064 



270 

7,548 



2,287 
194 
456 

2,005 
26,007 

9,476 

1,684 



Mfeet. 

564,701 

383,540 

246, 158 

205,369 

114,898 

65, 344 

70, 976 

69,089 

9,365 

4,139 

3,044 

6,134 

53,266 

16,704 

65, 724 

14,197 

1,573 

9,855 

38,752 

10,866 

5,622 



Total. 



58,649 



47,194 105,843 



150,881 



139,362 



290,243 1,188,316 771,000 



1,959,316 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 273 

Table XI. — Exports from Sweden in 1918 op Pine and Spruce Planks, 
Battens, and Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries op Destination. 



Countries of destination. 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Spain 

Norway 

Portugal 

Italy 

Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. 

Egypt 

British South Africa 

South America 

Other countries 



Rough lumber. 



Planks, 2 inches and 
more thick and 8.V 
inches and more wide. 



Pine. Spruce. Total 



Mfeet 

79, 576 

3,404 

1,338 

9,381 

4,993 

1,119 

11,290 

362 

50 

182 



Mfeet 

25,564 

1,239 

499 

1,796 

20,246 

172 

4, 



Mfeet. 

105, 140 

4,643 

1,837 

11,177 

25,239 

1,291 

16,179 

362 

50 

182 



Battens, 2 inches and 
more thick and 6-8J 
inches wide. 



Pine. Spruce. Total 



Mfeet. 

90,474 

3,481 

3,764 

13,662 

21,837 

536 

23, 526 



166 



Mfeet. 

45,088 

1,426 

10,876 

1,776 

79,436 

41 

11,371 



Mfeet. 

135, 562 

4,907 

14,640 

15,438 

101,273 

577 

34,897 



166 



Scantlings, 2 inches 
and more thick and 
less than 6 inches wide. 



Pine. Spruce. Total. 



Mfeet. 

39, 135 

1,863 

2, .580 

11,506 

10, 124 

141 

24,421 



Mfeet. 

23,039 

1,245 

6,071 

776 

37,739 



12,482 



Mfeet. 
62, 174 
3,108 
8,651 
12,282 
47,863 
141 
36,903 



8,607 



8,607 



2,047 



22 



24 



141 



18 

101 

10 



2,065 
101 
151 



1,073 



20 



1,093 



180 



30 



210 



Total. 



120,324 



54,407 



174, 731 



159,634 



150, 143 



309,777 



91,023 



81,402 



172,425 



Countries of destination. 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Denmark 

Netherlands 

Spain 

Norway 

Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. 

British South Africa 

South America 

Other countries 



Total. 



Rough lumber— Continued. 



Boards, less than 2 
inches thick and SJ 
inches and more wide. 



Pine. Spruce. Total 



Mfeet. 

9,114 

990 

4,908 

12,139 

3,150 

4 

2,657 

61 



Mfeet. 
2,469 
327 
1,115 
1,659 
4.884 



762 



Mfeet. 

11,583 

1,317 

6,023 

13,798 

8,034 

4 

3,419 

61 

8 

20 

16 



Boards, less than 2 
inches thick aijd 6-8i 
inches wide. 



Pine. Spruce. Total. 



Mfeet. 

14,054 

542 

15,171 

83,710 

8,942 

152 

4,309 



137 
"380 



MfcH. 

6,346 

408 

8,744 

7,9.52 

32,054 

42 

1,249 



33,025 11,258 44,283 127.397 56,955 184,3.52 152,365 116,770 



Mfeet. 

20,400 

950 

23,915 

91,662 

40,996 

194 

5,558 



137 
101 
439 



Narrow boards, less than 
2 inches thick and less 
than 6 inches wide. 



Pine. Spruce. Total. 



Mfee. 

19, 545 

1,184 

32,480 

75,294 

9,215 

30 

13,613 



Mfeet. 

6,546 

711 

16,966 

20, 281 

62,891 



9,128 



915'. 



121 

126 



Mfeet. 
26,091 
1,895 
49, 446 
95,575 
72,106 
30 
22,741 



915 
121 
215 



269,135 





Rough lumber- 


-Contd. 


Planed lumber. 


Countries of destination. 


Total rough lumber. 


Boards 8J inches and 
more wide. 


Boards 6-8| inches 
wide. 




Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


United Kingdom 


Mfeet. 

251,898 

11,464 

60,241 

205,692 

58,261 

1,982 

79,816 

362 

50 

409 

12,779 


Mfeet. 

109,052 

5,356 

44,271 

34,240 

237,250 

255 

39,881 

46 

343 

241 

470,935 


Mfeet. 

360,950 

16,820 

104,512 

239,932 

295,511 

2,237 

119,697 

362 

50 

409 

12,825 

343 

1,055 


Mfeet.. 
370 


Mfeet. 
590 


Mfeet. 
960 


Mfeet. 

10,094 

1,822 


Mfeet. 

4,295 

10 


Mfeet. 
14,389 


France 


1,832 


Germany 










Denmark 


206 


49 


255 


8,940 
69 


3,095. 
5,400 


12,035 


Netherlands 


5,469 


Spain 








Norway 


1,348 


442 


1,790 


2,081 


2,073 


4,154 


Portugal 




Italy 














Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. 














British South Africa 

South America 


412 




412 


2,556 




2,556 


Other countries 


814 


8 




8 




8 


g 






Total 


683,768 


1,154,703 


2,344 


1,081 


3,425 


25,562 


14,881 


40,443 





2092°— 21- 



-18 



274 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Table XI — Exports prom Sweden in 1918 of Pine and Spruce Planks, 
Battens, and Boards, Planed and Rough, by Countries of Destina- 
tion — Continued . 





Planed lumber — Continued. 








Countries of destination. 


Narrow boards, less 
than 6 inches wide. 


Total planed lumber. 


planed lumber. 




Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


Pine. 


Spruce. 


Total. 


United Kingdom 


Mfeet. 

7,077 

665 

6 

18,766 

55 


Mfeet. 

3,158 

196 

60 

6,956 

2,930 


Mfeet. 

10,235 

861 

66 

25,722 

2,985 


Mfeet. 

17,541 

2,487 

6 

27,912 

124 


Mfeet. 

8,043 

206 

60 

10,100 

8,330 


Mfeet. 
25,584 
2,693 
66 
38,012 
8,454 


Mfeet. 

2(;9,439 

13, 951 

60,247 

233,604 

58,385 

1,982 

99,679 

362 

50 

546 

16,008 


Mfeet. 

117,095 

5,562 

44,331 

44,340 

245,580 

255 

51,902 



46 

343 

720 


Mfeet. 
386, 534 


France 


19,513 


Germanv 


104,578 


Denmark 


277,944 


Netherlands 


303,965 




2,237 


Norway 


16,434 


9,506 


25,940 


19,863 


12,021 


31,884 


151,581 


Portugal 


362 


Italy 














50 


Algeria, Tunis, and Morocco. 
British South Afiica 


137 
261 




137 
261 


137 
3,229 




137 
3,229 


546 

16,054 

343 


Other countries 


135 


471 


606 


143 


479 


622 


957 


1,677 






Total 


43,536 


23,277 


66,813 


71,442 


39,239 


110,681 


755,210 


510,174 


1,265,384 







Table XII. 



-Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Staves, by Countries 
OF Destination, from 1903 to 1918. 



Countries of des- 
tination. 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


United Kingdom 


Mfeet. 
8,148 
2,016 
4,172 
2,289 
6,316 
6,496 
313 


Mfeet. 
7,134 
5,594 
3,867 
1,350 
3,051 
9,177 
24 


Mfeet. 
8,663 
2,946 
4,710 
2,154 
4,938 
10,635 
962 


Mfeet. 

10,989 

3,275 

5,184 

1,883 

5,982 

5,403 

343 

1,645 

105 


Mfeet. 
25, 585 
2,950 
3,117 
1,916 
2,875 
1,059 
1,770 


Mfeet. 
23,558 
1,952 
2,237 
1, 940 
3,080 
519 
1,228 


Mfeet. 

15,525 

3,875 

1,830 

2, 558 

1,806 

396 

1,586 

40 

770 


Mfeet. 
32,593 
4,074 


Germany 


2,251 


Netherlands 


3,505 


Belgium 


986 




620 


Denmark 


1,378 








370 






14 


51 












Total 


30,120 


30, 197 


35,008 


34,809 


39, 286 


34, 565 


28,386 


45,407 







Countries of des- 
tination. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 I 1918 


United ICingdom 


Mfeet. 
28,607 
3,600 
3, 673 
2,774 
3, 542 


Mfert. 
26, 888 
4,370 
5,289 
3,330 
5,017 


Mfeet. 
31,951 
6,966 
5, 261 
4, 815 
10,044 


Mfeet. 

18,417 

2,714 

2,235 

4,629 

2,433 

4 

3,314 

5,530 

184 

162 


Mfeet. 
24, 421 


Mfeet. 

IS, 806 

144 

736 

5,126 


Mfeet. Mfeet. 
3,598 9,625 


Germany 


552 
5,710 


792 1,958 


Netherlands 


1,721 253 
















Norway 


2,449 

1,899 

75 

119 


3,366 

5,417 

55 


4,805 

3,950 

71 

38 


9,720 
11,961 


12,319 
13,753 


12,089 
851 


18,394 




2, 1 10 


Canary Islands 




101 


5,679 


si 


22 








Total 


46, 738 


53, 732 


67,901 


39, 622 


52,465 


56,563 


19,102 32,392 









SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 275 

Table XIII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Laths, Molding 
Stock, Broom-handle Stock, Etc., by Countries of Destination, from 
1903 TO 1918. 



Countries of destina- 
tion. 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


United Kingdom 


Mfcet. 

26,465 

172 

1,996 

4,101 

2,992 

28 

1,580 

26 

259 


Mfeet. 

20,595 

790 

2,625 

5,304 

1,3.56 

81 

1,701 

18 

195 


Mfeet. 

20,279 

53 

5,465 

6,296 

3.56 

12 

1,812 


Mfeet. 

19,788 

499 

4,091 

5,972 

784 

12 

1,608 

4 

174 


Mfeet. 

18,883 

139 

3,164 

3,946 

1,081 

10 

1,483 

38 

30 


Mfeet. 

18,390 

608 

4,495 

4,437 

400 

46 

2,263 

8 

79 


Mfeet. 

18, 101 

87 

3,683 

4,639 

236 

26 

2,380 


Mfeet. 
19,642 
418 




3,344 


Netherlands 


3,926 


Belgium 


592 




12 




2,077 






Other countries 


119 


81 


38 


Total 


37,619 


32,665 


34,392 


32,932 


28,774 


30, 726 


29,233 


30,049 



Countries of destina- 
tion. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


United Kingdom 


Mfeet. 

18,949 

386 

3,815 

3,479 

297 

20 

4 

1,927 

16 

236 


Mfeet. 

18,323 

572 

2,758 

4,803 

929 

44 

40 

1,313 

14 

145 


Mfeet. 

21,544 

705 

1,368 

5,540 

1,931 

32 

85 

1,511 

137 

570 


Mfeet. 

17,6.36 

697 

1,430 

6,368 

495 

57 

8 

1,756 

95 

174 


Mfeet. 

14, S24 
139 
180 

7,752 


Mfert. 

13,026 

103 

246 

8,868 


Mfeet. 
1,335 


Mfeet. 
962 


Germany 


748 
7,381 


780 


Netherlands 


6,188 


Belgium 






40 

412 

1,915 


10 

748 
2,562 








196 
1,515 


97 


Denmark 


2 461 


Canary Islands 

Other count"ies 




95 


26 












Total 


29,129 


28,941 


33, 423 


28, 716 


25,357 


25,589 


11,175 


10 48S 







Table XIV.- 



-EXPORTS FROM SwEDEN OF BoX ShOOKS, 

from 1907 TO 1916. 



Planed and Rough, 



Years. 


Rough 
shooks.a 


Planed 
shooks.6 


Years. 


Rough 
shooks.a 


Planed 
shooks.6 


1907 


c. $646, 000 

c 927, 000 

c 1,244, 000 

c 1,420, 000 

c 1,755, 000 


$345, 000 
352, 000 
353,000 
.342,000 
379,000 


1912 


$2,141,000 
2, 203, 000 
2, .358, 000 
4, 280, 000 
7,359,000 


$672, 000 
828, 000 


1908 


1913... 


1909 


1914 


770, 000 


1910 


1915. 


1,326 000 


1911 


1916... 


2,415 000 









a Prior to 1907, included in planks, battens, and boards. 
b Prior to 1907, included in planed lumber. 
c Pine and spruce ox).W. 



Table XV. 



-Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Sawn Box Shooks, 
BY Countries of Destination, from 1907 to 1918. 



Countries of destination. 



IJnited Kingdom. 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Denmark 

Canary Islands. . . 
Other countries... 



Total. 



1907 



Mfeet. 

22,865 

820 

2,689 

794 

2,309 



543 



10, 019 
6,294 



46,333 



Mfeet. 
24, 999 
1,071 
4,409 
1,471 
2,882 



204 

53 

9,163 

4,605 



48, 857 



Mfeet. 

26,637 

1,172 

2,964 

584 

5,227 



784 

149 

9,025 

9,701 



Mfeet. 

32, 827 

1,090 

5,514 

640 

4,481 

55 

766 

253 

9,068 

14, 991 



56, 243 69, 685 



Mfeet. 

32, 110 

529 

3,778 

1,008 

2,492 

• 121 

89 

408 

11,306 

15, 876 



67, 717 



Mfeet. 

39,000 

909 

5,423 

2,894 

2,746 

99 

202 

701 

15, 086 

17, 607 



84,667 



276 SWEDISH LUMBEE INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Table XV. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Sawn Box Shooks, 
BY Countries of Destination, from 1907 to 1918 — Continued. 



Countries of destination. 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


United Kingdom. .. . 


Mfeet. 

54,333 

1,683 

4,396 

1,748 

2,433 

14 

2,202 

659 

267 

11,850 

7,504 


Mfeet. 

52,553 

871 

2,396 

2,229 

141 

675 

1,324 

699 


Mfeet. 

97,060 

556 

2,097 

2,891 


Mfeet. 

118,345 
1,491 
2,926 
6,273 


Mfeet. 
84,328 


Mfeet. 
91 240 


France 


1 699 


Germany 


25, 615 
2,604 


602 


Netherlands 


2 239 


Belgium 




Spain , 


42 
1,034 

806 


255 

2,241 

980 

69 

11,828 

3,891 






Norway 


1,679 
1,028 


1 428 


Denmark 


2*178 


EgjT)t 




Canary Islands 


11,739 
5,725 


11,633 
2,519 


311 
4,017 




Other countries . 


4,372 




Total 


87, 089 


78,352 


118,638 


148, 299 


119, 582 


103 758 







Table XVI. — Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Planed Box 
Shooks, by Countries op Destination, from 1907 to 1918. 



Countries of destination. 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


1912 


United Kingdom 


Mfeet. 

12,864 

44 

360 

921 

10 


Mfeet. 
9,599 


MJeet. 

8,866 

137 

55 


Mfeet. 
7,280 


Mfeet. 

6,657 

188 

125 


Mfeet. 
14,307 
38 


France 


Gflrmany 


758 


14 
4 


50 


Rfilfiiim 


139 


Spain 




826 
10 


8 

44 

71 

218 

5, 166 


99 


Norway 








Dfinmnrk. . . . 






236 


139 


Canfiry Islands 


131 
3,849 


1,703 
2,596 


6 
2,934 


6 


Other countries 


4,208 


7,361 




Total 


18, 179 


14,656 


12,834 


11,742 


12,477 


22, 139 







Countries of destination. 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


United Kingdom 


Mfeet. 
21,144 


MJeet. 

18,227 

131 

20 

8 


Mjeet. 
29,058 


Mfeet. 

40,376 

1,172 


MJeet. 

25,158 

53 

2,125 


Mjeet. 
13,383 


France ... 




Germany 


246 






Netherlands 




61 




Rplgiiim ... 


42 








Norway 


232 

59 

42 

6 

2,002 




224 


196 


277 




289 


59 
42 


117 


Egypt 










26 
5,516 










2,299 


1,832 


1,220 


1,125 






Total 


27, 263 


20, 727 


31,458 


43,665 


28,752 


14,902 







Table XVII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Split Wood (Mill 
Ends), by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. 



Countries 
of destination. 



1903 



1904 



1905 



1906 



1907 



1908 



United Kingdom 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spam 

>Jorway 

Denmark 

Other countries . . 

Total 



Citbic Jeet. 

12,148,000 

57,000 

216,000 

143,000 

144,000 

10,000 

6,000 

1,564,000 

14,000 



Ctibic feet 

12,658,000 

54,000 

361,000 

78,000 

61,000 

8,000 

41,000 

1,510,000 

6,000 



Cubic feet. 

11,712,000 
73,000 
75,000 
143,000 
126,000 
24,000 
62,000 

1,250,000 
16,000 



Cubic feet. 

12,189,000 

45,000 

184,000 

266,000 

380,000 

28,000 

78,000 

1,591,000 

29,000 



Cubic Jeet 

10,477,000 

33,000 

100,000 

253,000 

64,000 

17,000 

130,000 

1,154,000 

66,000 



Cu^ic feet. 

8,471,000 
19,000 
23,000 
257,000 
57,000 
19,000 
120,000 

1,218,000 
71,000 



Cubic feet. 

8,062,000 

2,000 

117,000 

544,000 

89,000 

9,000 

255,000 

1,189,000 

49,000 



Cubic teet. 

7,629,000 
49,000 
214,000 
616,000 
103,000 
10,000 
272,000 

1,295,000 
214,000 



14,302,000 



14,777,000 



13,481,000 



14,790,000 



12,294,000 



10,258,000 



10,316,000 10,402,000 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AKD LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 277 



Table XVII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Split Wood (Mill 
Ends), by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918 — Continued. 



Countries 
of destination. 


1911 


1912 


1913 


1914 


1915 


1916 


1917 


1918 


United Kingdom 


Cubicfeet. 

8,419,000 

23,000 

282,000 

538,000 

35,000 

6,000 

410,000 

1,364,000 

45,000 


Cubicjcet. 

8,371,000 

37,000 

196, 000 

445,000 

23,000 

5,000 

440,000 

1,371,000 

122,000 


Cubic teet. 

10,513,000 

8,000 

82,000 

491,000 

111,000 

4,000 

753,000 

1,710,000 

43,000 


Cubicfeet. 

5,592,000 

6,000 

58,000 

388,000 


Cubicfeet. 
152,000 


Cubicfeet. 
176,000 


Cubicfeet. 
7,000 


Cubicfeet. 






33,000 
448,000 


27,000 
440,000 






Netherlands 


126,000 


2,000 








4,666 

723,000 

1,357,000 

14,000 












1,537,000 
1,357,000 


1,001,000 
1,235,000 


423,000 
1,665,000 


45,000 




1,139,000 
















Total 


11,122,000 


11,010,000 


13,715,000 


8,142,000 


3,527,000 


2,879,000 


2,221,000 


1,186,000 







Table XVIII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Round Timber, 
Etc., 9f| Inches and More in Top Diameter, biy Countries of Destination, 
FROM 1903 to 1918. 



Years. 


United 
Kingdom 


France. 


Ger- 
many. 


Nether- 
lands. 


Norway. 


Den- 
mark. 


Other 
countries. 


Total. 


1903 


Cubicfeet. 
24,675 
24, 710 


Cubicfeet. 
7,484 


Cubicfeet. 

3,812 

6,425 

4,271 

177 


Cubicfeet. 
561,835 
313, 464 
524,064 
509, 238 

82,920 
113, 701 

21,851 


Cubicfeet. 

3,814,059 

1,422,307 

644,684 

1,151,415 

3,210,747 

526,041 

511,850 

538,678 

404,397 

772,646 

1,043,362 

228, 779 

1,160,382 

4,081,598 

599,005 

963, 443 


Cubicfeet. 

114,619 

335,950 

160, 227 

227,544 

169,616 

244, 452 

112,254 

294,896 

68, 375 

49,950 

W,720 

37,877 

41,583 

20,544 

12,567 

14,508 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 
4,526,484 
2, 102, 856 


1904 . . 




1905 




176 

600 

237, 887 

4,942 

17, 403 

35 

988 

71 

46,243 


1,333,422 


1906 






1, 888, 974 


1907. 


3,742 

530 

2,224 

1,730 




3, 704, 912 


1908 






889, 666 


1909 




141 
2,365 
1,377 


665, 723 


1910 


282 


837,986 


1911.. 


30,217 
44, 160 
23. 298 


505,354 
874, 452 


1913 


3,389 
23,545 
17,332 
27, 746 

4,201 


4,236 
1,553 


1913 


1,059 


1, 223, 780 


1914 


565 




284,553 
1,445,323 


1915 


7,236 


206, 717 
142, 930 
146, 707 


1,659 
1,694 


1916 




4,250,967 


1917 




758, 279 


1918 








a 1,236 


979, 187 




! i 





a To Spain. 

Table XIX. — ^Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Round Timber, IfJ 
TO 9f| Inches in Top Diameter, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 
to 1918. 



Coimtries of destina- 
tion. 



United Kingdom. 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands , 

Spain 

Norway 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Canary Islands 

Other countries . . 



Total. 



1903 



Cubicfeet. 

349,329 

23,792 

16,979 

1,265,682 

2,824 

2,258,847 

1,143,332 

36,606 



34,064 
5, 131, 455 



Cubicfeet. 

197,045 

37,312 

25,557 

973,362 

4,448 

4,325,097 

737, 135 

14, 402 



18,215 
6,332,573 



Cubicfeet. 

118, 785 

40,630 

27, 181 

1,347,189 

1,306 

3,098,493 

846, 247 

18,921 



8,154 



Cubicfeet 

303, 968 

27,216 

15,109 

1,170,972 



4,888,732 

395,042 

5,507 



Cubicfeet. 

347,564 

24, 216 

5,895 

672, 712 



2,937,631 
490,811 



4,236 
4,483,065 



1908 



Cubicfeet. 

464, 442 

43, 489 

1,694 

548,526 

1,412 

5, 444, 495 

582,379 



50, 514 
7,136,951 



Cubicfeet. 

617,291 

26, 404 

5,366 

1,099,030 

1,271 

4, 993, 185 

559, 717 

2,542 

35 

32,970 

7,337,811 



Cubicfeet. 

567, 448 

29,617 



698, 410 



4,709,020 

94,392 

4,624 



13, 167 
6,116,678 



2Y8 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Table XIX. — Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Round Timber, 
Ifl- TO 9f| Inches in Top Diameter, by Countries of Destination, from 
1903 to 1918— Continued. 



Countries of destina- 
tion. 



United Kingdom. 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Canary Islands. . . 
Other comitries.. 



Cubicfeet. 
375,980 
26,616 
71 
406, 762 
5,324,369 
176,359 



11, 755 



Total ! 6,321,912 



Cubicfeet. 

524, 487 

16,414 

33, 888 

628, 870 

3, 579, 738 

794, 744 

8,543 



1913 



Cubicfeet.] Cubicfeet. 

675,254 516,792 

25,063 24,639 

671 35 

586, 898' 667, 700 

3,348,3U! 6,491,282 

113,2421 113,772 

15, 49^ 



Cubicfeet. 
180, 736 



282, 612 

4,169,812 

68,729 



6, 742 



141 

18,638 



5,593,426 4,783,715 



247 

5,612! 



7,590 



7,820,079: 4,709,479 



Cubicfeet. 
26, 157 



150, 272 

4,446,141 

54,609 



10,061 



4,687,240 



Cubicfeet. 
11,649 



38, 724 

5, 759, 972 

18,144 



565 



1918 



Cubicfeet. 
92,092 



130, 232 

5, 133, 482 

26, 828 



388 



5,829,054 5,382,968 



Table XX. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Hewn Timber, 
7| Inches and More at Middle, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 
1918. 



Countries of desti- 
nation. 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


United Kingdom 


Cubicfeet. 
114,800 
142,200 
248,350 
117,150 


Cubicfeet. 
109, 850 
140,250 
238,200 


Cubicfeet. 

58, 100 
118,500 
245,100 

11,300 


Cubic feet. 
130, 550 
176,250 
457,800 
30,650 


Cubicfeet. 
145,650 
140,650 
408,700 


Cubicfeet. 
134,300 
145,050 
258,750 


Cubicfeet. 

88,300 

80, 700 

269,350 


Cubicfeet. 
87,600 
92,250 


Germany 


297,750 








350 

38,150 

69, 700 

1,154,450 








600 


Spain 


90,000 

25,200 

1,436,250 


85.200 

98,550 

1,350,350 


100,800 

54,350 

1,841,900 


60,350 

16,850 

1,145,250 


90, 100 

2,150 

426, 650 


65, 550 

1,750 

482,950 

6,900 


51,150 




1,100 


Denmark 


718,300 


F.pvnt 






16,850 


50,800 


12,400 


51,500 


11,400 


2,700 










Total 


2,190,800 


1,801,750 


1,979,500 


2,843,800 


1,928,850 


1,059,700 


995,500 


1,248,750 







Countries of desti- 
nation. 



United Kingdom. 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Denmark 

Kgypt :■■■- 

Other countries. . 



Total. 



Cubicfret. 

72,250 

81,450 

392, 750 



3,550 
33,300 
13,650 
,074,300 
IS. 5.50 

6,850 



Cubic feet. 

42,550 

119,000 

469,450 

800 



31,350 
61,400 
735, 000 



7,250 



Cubicfeet. 

76,7.50 

133, 150 

625,200 

2,400 



49,000 

13,500 

994,300 



5,800 



Cubicfeet. 

25,900 

24,800 

329,300 



46,350 
31,450 
697,450 



7,400 



1,696,650 1,466,800 1,900,100 1,162,650 1,006,100 1,989,400 1,005,450 



Cubicfeet. 

31,050 

2,450 

125,600 

12,450 



4,250 
43,900 
780,350 



6,050 



Cubicfeet. 

409,900 

400 

16,700 

609,400 



9,300 

57, 150 

884,300 



2,250 



Cubicfeet. 
24,700 



34,900 
115,200 



62,000 
763,400 



5,250 



1918 



Cubicfeet.. 



7,500 
147, 500 



82,500 
1,302,550 



1,540,050 



Table XXI. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Small Hewn or 
Sawn Timber, Less Than 7| Inches at Middle, by Countries of Destina- 
tion, FROM 1903 TO 191S. 



Cotmtries of dcst'na- 
tion. 



United Kingdom. 

France 

Germany 

Netherlands 

Belgium 

Spain 

Norway 

Denmark 

Egypt 

Other countries . . 



Cubicfeet 

627,000 

756, 900 

3, 183, 600 

234,000 

1,750 

37,900 

42,600 

3,046,750 

3,804,050 

96,900 



1904 



1905 



Cubicfeet 

681,800 

701,2.50i 

2,764,500 

294,0.10! 

44,550 

29, 950 

53, 4.50 

2,277,0.-.0 

5,320,900 

42, .550 



Cubicfeet. 
498, 450 
688, 700 

3,310,3.50 
345,000 



Cubicfeet 
863,050 
691,350 

3, 578, 2,50 
289, 150 



• 39.0001 60,500 

13,350 6,5.50 

2,822,000 3,8.51,400 

4,884,750 3,569,000 

92, 000 308, 300 



Total 11, 831, 450 12, 210, 050 12, 691, 600 13, 217, 550 13, 125, 200 10, 639, 100|13, 194, 950 11,078,550 



1907 



Cubicfeet 
695, 450 
740, 550 

3,911,300 
167,600 



1908 



1909 



71,650 

29,850 

4,190,900 

3,238,100 

76, 800 



Cubicfeet. 
689, 150 
542,900 

3,066,700 
92,000 



37,600 

26,500 

3,391,800 

2,726,900 

65, 550 



Cubicfeet. 
6.52,3.50 
532,200: 

3,329,350 
180, 850 



44,500 

27,600 

3,343,950 

4,927,250 

156,900 



1910 



Cubicfeet. 

489,350 

478,000 

3,179,750 

60,250 

24,200 

59,150 

32,650 

3,408,700 

2,951,600 

394 '900 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 279 

Table XXI. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Small Hewn or 
Sawn Timbers, Less Than 7| Inches at Middle, by Countries of Des- 
tination, FROM 1903 to 1918 — Continued. 



Countries of destina- 
tion. 



Cubic fed 

United Kingdom 605, 000 

France 458,0.50 

Germany 2,799,200 

Netherlands 1 70, 950 

Belgium 9,000 

Spain 14,350 

Norway 18, 150 

Denmark I 3, 324, 800 

Egypt I 2,689,450 

Other coimtries ! 860,900 



Total jlO, 949,850 



1912 



Cubicfect. 
571,100 
579, 800 

3, 113, 800 
309,200 



52, 450 

55, 650 

3,820,350 

2, 357, 250 

745, 400 



11,605,000 



1913 



Cubic feet. 
696,300 
624,150 

3, 292, 400 
961,850 



Cubicfeet. 
1,528,300 

235, 650 
1,976,800 

525,300 



43,000 28,150 

62,300 101,800 

5,355,900 5,006,500 

1,874,100 809,400 

985, 800 480, 250 



13,895,80010,692,150 



Cubicfect. 
499,600 



744, 150 
57,500 



3,750 

192, 850 

4,546,000 



69,400 



6,113,250 



Cubicfeet. 

1,. 342, 950 

1,350 

82,500 

246,200 



6,300 
1,173,450 
5,271,300 



97,400 



8,221,450 



1917 



Cubicfect. 
110,450 



320,250 
172,600 



858, 600 
3,707,800 



61,950 



5,231,650 



Cubic feet. 

46, 150 

19,300 

88,950 

155, 700 



380,000 
5,001,750 



23, 750 



5,715,600 



Table XXII. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Railroad Ties, 
Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. 



Years. 


United 
Kingdom. 


Germany. 


Nether- 
lands. 


Norway. 


Den- 
mark. 


Other 
countries. 


Total. 


1903 


Cubicfeet. 
1,300,946 
1,499,932 
2, 194, 495 
1,857,874 
2,165,090 
2, 758, 483 
1,997,309 
1,666,901 
1,528,878 
2,839,850 
2,964,070 
2,432,735 
2,309,785 
2,316,139 
870, 110 
188,326 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 
47, 161 
50,973 
15,885 
52,421 
63,363 
21,427 

1,271 

7; 519 
600 

2,047 
20,509 
99,934 
44,972 
42,960 
23,686 

4,977 


Cubicfeet. 

4,060 

2,295 

69,470 

9,743 

27,005 

17,474 

24,498 

8, 754 

15,250 

20,297 

99, 475 

29,511 

572,001 

6.50, 579 

269, 727 

485,340 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 
1 352 167 


1904 








l'553'200 


1905 


61,952 

180,665 






2' 341^802 
2 100 703 


1906 






1907 






2,255,458 
2 800 561 


1908 


3,177 
35 






1909 






2 023 113 


1910 






1^683; 174 
1 544 728 


1911 








1912 






a 424 
6.530 
1,105 


2 862 618 


1913... 






3^084; 584 
9 583 345 


1914 






1915 


3,212 
73,071 




2' 929' 970 


1916 


6,954 




3,0S9;703 
1 163 523 


1917 




1918 




625,022 




1*303' 665 











1 To Canary Islands. 

b Including 424 cubic feet sent to Canary Islands. 



Table XXIII. 



-Exports from Sweden ,of Pine and Spruce Pit Props, by 
Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. 



Years. 


United 
Kingdom. 


France. 


Germany. 


Nether- 
lands. 


Norway. 


Den- 
mark. 


Other 
countries. 


Total. 


1903 


Cubicfeet. 
3.5,374,236 
37,306,064 
25,135,330 
27,561,358 
23,447,001 
21,730,221 
14,897,518 
17,846,233 
17,956,369 
15,010,160 
18,798,203 
16,605,402 
22,096,565 
15,817,118 
4,208,501 
3,327,166 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 

4,624 

35 

106 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 

712, 636 

.590, 781 

315,900 

769,575 

1,695,671 

991,330 

592,405 

256, 137 

369,626 

365,920 

324,019 

593, 746 

3,722,314 

1,102,419 

• 290, 837 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 
36,091,496 


1904 






459 

212 
8,825 

282 
3,777 

423 




37 897 339 


1905 







8,083 

529 

353 

565 

4,730 

3,.5fi6 

14,191 

39,360 

35,370 

73,248 

1,941 

2,047 


25,459 631 


1906 




32,653 


28,372,940 
25 143 307 


1907 






1908 


3,389 
8,931 






22', 729' 282 
15,579,620 
18 115 325 


1909 




75,613 
9,354 


1910 


35 

164,533 

122,420 

25, 134 

2,083 


1911 




141 

918 

53, 197 

3,459 

8,119 


18' 504' 860 


1912 






15 538 778 


1913... 




247 


19' 236' 170 


1914 




17' 277' 938 


1915 






25^828^939 
16 921 584 


1916 








1917 








209,682 
563,847 


4' 709' 020 


1918 








146,283 




4,037,296 













280 SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 

Table XXIV. — Exports from Sweden op Pine and Spruce Pulp Wood, by 
Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. 



Years. 


United 
King- 
dom, 


Ger- 
many. 


Norway. 


Den- 
mark. 


Other 
countries. 


Total. 


1903 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 

635,153 

612, 632 

340, 715 

348, 729 

525, 970 

597,346 

1,705 

, 3,318 

78, 154 

1, 248, 808 

843, 246 

1, 777, 779 

452,228 

218, 966 

40,983 


Cubicfeet. 
247,771 
134, 105 
69, 506 
17,721 
33, 888 
6,566 


Cubicfeet. 

«9,354 

a 130, 080 


Cubicfeet. 
892, 278 


1904.. 






876, 817 


1905 






410,221 


1906 






t 49, 455 


415, 905 


1907 




6,460 


566,318 


1908 






603, 912 


1909 




18,568 


b 107, 029 


127, 362 
3,318 


1911 c 






1912. 


1,836 

918 

88, 285 

199,586 








79,990 
1,259,433 


1913 


9,707 






1014 . . . 


2,471 




934, 002 


1915 






1,977,365 


1916 






452, 228 


1917 






1 


218, 966 


1918 






1 


40 983 


( 1 


1 





a To the Netherlands. 



b To France. 



There were no exports in 1910. 



Table XXV. — Exports from Sweden of Pine and Spruce Telegraph and 
Telephone Poles, by Countries of Destination, from 1903 to 1918. 



Years. 


United 
King- 
dom. 


Ger- 
many. 


Norway. 


Den- 
mark. 


>>gypt. 


Other 
coun- 
tries. 


Total. 


1903 . . 


Cubicfeet. 

45, 608 
165,345 
239, 369 
172, 1.58 

72, 047 
116, 949 

84,508 

31,734 
565 

13, 379 

36, 077 

374, 180 

2,153 

67, 705 


Cubicfeet. 
2,506 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 

3,353 

847 

49,385 

24, 145 

63,964 

103, 782 

27, 816 

27, 675 

43, 948 

147,483 

178,724 

227, 297 

359, 883 

287, 201 

185, 748 

162, 662 


Cubicfeet. 
30,076 
47, 302 
20,439 
19, 486 


Cubicfeet. 


Cubicfeet. 
81,543 


1904 






213, 494 


1905 








309, 193 


1906 








215, 789 


1907.. 








136,011 


1908 




18, 709 


5,154 




244, 594 
112,324 


1909.. 






1910 






1,942 
3,530 




61,3.51 


1911 








48,043 
364,119 


1912 


199, 798 

151,119 

144, 730 

15,497 


3,459 

635 

66, 152 

5,401 
26, 228 
34, 100 




1913. 






366, 555 


1914 




o529 


812, 888 


1915 




382, 934 


1916 






381, 134 


1917. 








219, 848 


1918 








6 69,329 


231, 991 






1 







a To France. 



6 To the Netherlands. 



SWEDISH LUMBER INDUSTRY AND LUMBER EXPORT TRADE. 281 

Values per Unit Given in Swedish Official Statistics in 1913 for Pine and 
Spruce Products for Export. 

He.wn timber: Per cubie ioot. 

Minimum diameter at middle 7| inches $0. 25 

Diameter 4|-7| inches 17 

Diameter less than 4f inches 13 

Railroad ties 17 

■ Firewood 05 

Round timber; 

Masts, logs, etc. — * 

9| inches in top diameter 25 

2-9J inches in top diameter 17 

Telegraph and telephone poles 17 

Pit props 05 

Pulp wood 08 

Sawn lumber: Per M feet. 

Box shooks 25. 28 

Staves 15. 55 

Planks (minimum thickness 2 inches, minimum width 7| inches) — 

Kne 23. 70 

Spruce 21. 30 

Battens (minimum thickness 2 inches, width 5f-7i inches) — 

Pine 19.70 

Spruce 18. 75 

Scantlings (minimum thickness 2 inches, width less than 5| inches) — 

Pine 17. 25 

Spruce 16. 95 

Boards (less than 2 inches thick) — 
7^ inches and more mde — 

Kne 26.30 

Spruce 22. 10 

5|-7|- inches wide — 

Pine 22. 00 

Spruce 19. 00 

Narrow boards (less than 2 inches thick and less than 5J inches wide) — 

. Pine 16.45 

Spruce. 16. 00 

Splitwood (maximum length 6^ feet) 4. 65 

Lath wood 9. 48 

Laths, lists, moldings, etc 8. 81 

Broom handles 9. 48 

Planed lumber: 
Boards — 

Minimum width 7]- inches — 

Pine 29. 75 

Spruce 26. 40 

Width 5| to 7i inches- 
Pine 23. 65 

Spruce 23. 00 

Width less than 51 inches- 
Pine 20.95 

Spruce 21. 65 

Splitwood (maximum length 6^ fe«t) 6. 32 

Box shooks , 30. 33 



i 



Appendix C— CATALOGUES. 

In connection with the foregoing report, Mr. Oxholm submitted the 
following catalogues, all in the English language, which may be 
seen at the Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce or its district 
offices : 

Price list of sashes, doors, moldings, etc., 1911. 

Torroba-box catalogue. 

BoUuders' catalogue of sawmill machinery. 

282 

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